Material is based on ‘Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide’ , 6th Edition

Communication over the Network

CSE2&4NFE

Chapter 2
Communicating the Messages
 Communication begins with a message, or information, that
must be sent from one individual or device to another.
 People exchange ideas using many different
communication methods.
 All of these methods have three elements in common.
Sender / Message source
Receiver / Message destination
Channel: The media that provides the pathway over which the
message can travel from the source to detonation
 Communicating the Messages
 Messages has different sizes
 If messages are sent one message at a time, large
messages can consume the network resources for
long periods
 To solve this issue, segmentation is used in
which all messages are broken into smaller
pieces
Communicating the Messages
 Segmenting message benefits
 Different conversations can be included
 Increased reliability of network communications
 Segmenting message disadvantage
 Increased level of complexity
 Components of a Network
There are three categories of network components:
 Devices
 Media
 Protocols
Components of Network
 Devices:
 End Devices: PC, Laptop, Workstation, Server
 Intermediary devices: Switch, Router
 Media:
 Wired: cabling connecting the devices
▪ Electrical signals propagating through copper (usually) cables
▪ Optical signals propagating through fiber optics cables
 Wireless: electromagnetic waves in atmosphere/vacuum
 Services: Communication programs which are called software that
run on network devices. E.g. Web hosting service, email hosting
service
 Processes: Functionality that moves messages through the network
End Devices
 End devices refer to the piece of equipment that is
the source or the destination of a message
 Users usually only interact with end devices such:
 Computers (Laptops, servers, workstations)
 Network Printers
 VoIP phones
 Handheld Devices (PDAs, Smartphones, Scanners)
Intermediary Devices
Intermediary Devices
Intermediary Devices
 Devices interconnected between end users
 Intermediary devices pass the messages among them based
on the destination host address until it reaches the destination
 Processes in intermediary devices performs various tasks
such as:
 Regenerate and retransmit data signals
 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the
network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
Intermediary Devices
Intermediary Devices

Device Type Description

Network Access Devices Connect end users to their networks
E.g. Hubs, switches, and wireless
access points
Internetworking Devices Connect one network to one ore more other
E.g. Routers networks
Communication Servers Routes services IPTV and wireless broadband
Modems Connect users to network or servers through
telephone or cable
Security Devices Secure the network with devices such as
e.g. Firewalls firewalls
Types of physical Media
Network Media
 Network Media
 Each media has different physical properties, hence different
encoding methods are used.
 Encoding refers to the way data is converted to signals in the
physical medium (electric, light or electromagnetic energy)

Media Usual application Signal Type

Copper Short distance Usually LAN Electrical Pulses
Fiber-optics Long distance Trunks and LAN Light pulses
Wireless Multi-use, based on frequency and Electromagnetic waves
available spectrum width
Copper Media – most commonly used
 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cable
 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists
of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then
encased in a flexible plastic sheath.
 It’s a common copper-based medium for interconnecting network devices, such
as computers, with intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches.
UTP Cable Types
Coaxial Cable Type
 These cables can be used to connect nodes on a LAN to
intermediate devices, such as routers and switches.
 Also used to connect WAN devices to a data services provider
such as a telephone company.

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Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cable

 Uses 4 wire-pairs wrapped in a metallic braid or foil

 Shields all the wires as a bundle and each independently.
 Better noise protection than UTP, but more expensive.
 Fiber Media

Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

 Enterprise Networks
 Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and Access Networks
 Long-Haul Networks
 Submarine Networks
Wireless Media

 Uses radio waves to carry

signals. Gives you mobility
(convenience) not
bandwidth!
 Interference from cordless
phones, some fluorescent
lights, microwaves, other
wireless devices.
 Network security is a big
issue!
Wireless equipment
 Network Media

 Criteriafor choosing a network media are:

The distance the media can successfully carry a
signal.
The environment in which the media is to be
installed.
The amount of data and the speed at which it
must be transmitted.
The cost of the media and installation
Ethernet Types

25
 Material is based on ‘Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide’ , 6th Edition

Network Sizes
Networks of Many Sizes
 Networks Sizes
 Networks infrastructures can vary greatly
in terms of:
 The size of the area covered
 The number of users connected
 The number and types of services available
Types of Networks

The two most common types of network infrastructures are:

 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN).

Other types of networks include:

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wireless LAN (WLAN)
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
Local Area Network (LAN).

 The scope of the LAN is small, typically a

single building or a cluster of buildings.
 It is usually the case that the LAN is owned
by the same organization that owns the
attached devices.
 They offer much higher bandwidth, in terms
of several hundred megabits per second.
 Error rates and delay will be very less.
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Wide Area Network - WAN

 WANs spread over the entire globe.

 They offer low to medium bandwidth
 Error-rate and delay are high related to MAN
and LAN
 WAN involve several international trunks
owned by different countries
 May enforce different policies
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Wide-area Networks (WANs)
The Internet – A Network of Networks

 Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN,

most of us need to communicate with a resource on
another network, outside of our local organization.

 Examples of this type of communication include:

 Sending an e-mail to a friend in another country
 Accessing news or products on a website
 Getting a file from a neighbor's computer
 Instant messaging with a relative in another city
 Following a favorite sporting team's performance on a cell
phone
The Internet – A Network of Networks
 Storage-Area Networks (SANS)
 Setof equipments and technologies to remote
the storage in a network
SAN features
 Network resource used exclusively for the storage.
 Access to data through logical blocks and not to file.
 Requirement compatible to Direct-attached storage
(DAS) technologies :
 High speed
 Low latency
 Very low error rate
 Compatibility with an high number of nodes
 High reliability and ability to react to failures
 Material is based on ‘Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide’ , 6th Edition

Network Protocols

Chapter 2 Part II
Rules that Govern Communications

 All communication, whether face-to-face or over a network,

is governed by predetermined rules called protocols.
 These protocols are specific to the characteristics of the
conversation.
 In our day-to-day personal communication, the rules we use
to communicate over one medium, like a telephone call, are
not necessarily the same as the protocols for using another
medium, such as sending a letter.

 Think of how many different rules or protocols govern all the

different methods of communication that exist in the world
today.
Rules that Govern Communications
Rules that Govern Communications

 Successful communication between hosts on a

network requires the interaction of many
different protocols.
 A group of inter-related protocols that are
necessary to perform a communication function
is called a protocol suite.
 These protocols are implemented in software and
hardware that is loaded on each host and network
device.
Protocols
 Networking protocol suites describe processes such
as:
Network Protocols - Format
Network Protocols - Process
Network Protocols – Error Messages
Network Protocols – Termination
 Industry Standards
 Protocols that are vendor-specific are called proprietary
 Different devices from vendors are designed to interact with each
other eventually, hence common protocol standards are required
 A standard is a process or protocol that has been recognized by the
networking industry and approved by a standards organization, such
as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
 Protocols and standards generally do not describe how to complete
a particular function. By describing only what functions are required
of a particular communication rule but not how they are to be carried
out, the implementation of a particular protocol can be technology-
independent.
Interaction of Protocols
 Application Protocol – Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Transport Protocol – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Internet Protocol – Internet Protocol (IP)
 Network Access Protocols – Data link & physical layers
Technology Independent Protocols
 Layered Model
 The benefits of layered model to describe network
protocols are:
 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a
specific layer have defined information that they act upon and a
defined interface to the layers above and below
 Increase the competition between different technologies' vendors
because products from different vendors can work together
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below
 Provides a common language to describe networking functions
and capabilities
Common Network Models
Protocols and Reference models
 Two types of networking models
 Protocol models : provides a model that closely matches the
structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarchical set of
related protocols in a suite typically represents all the
functionality required to interface the human network with the
data network. E.g. TCP/IP model
 Reference models: provides a common reference for
maintaining consistency within all types of network protocols
and services. A reference model is not intended to be an
implementation specification or to provide a sufficient level of
detail to define precisely the services of the network
architecture.
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Protocol Suite and Communication
The OSI Reference Model
 OSI Model
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most
widely known internetwork reference model. It is used for data
network design, operation specifications, and troubleshooting.

 Initially the OSI model was designed by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO) to provide a framework
on which to build a suite of open systems protocols
Physical Layer – Layer 1
 The physical layer is concerned with the transmission and
receiving of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical
medium.
 It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional
interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all
of the higher layers. It provides:
 Data encoding ,
 Physical medium specification
 Transmission technique
 Data Link Layer – Layer 2
 The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from
one node to another over the physical layer. It provides:
 Link establishment and termination
 Frame traffic control
 Frame sequencing
 Frame acknowledgment
 Frame delimiting
 Frame error checking
 Media access management
Network Layer – Layer 3
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding
which physical path the data should take based on network
conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:
 Addressing devices
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Logical-physical address mapping
 Transport Layer – Layer 4
 The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free,
in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It provides:
 Message segmentation
 Message acknowledgment
 Session multiplexing
Session Layer – Layer 5

 Thesession layer allows session establishment between

processes running on different stations. It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination
Presentation Layer – Layer 6

 Thepresentation layer formats the data to be

presented to the application layer. It provides:
 Character code translation
 Data compression
 Data encryption
Application Layer – Layer 7

 Theapplication layer serves as the window for

users and application processes to access
network services. It provides:
 Resource sharing and device redirection
 Remote file access
 Remote printer access
The OSI Reference Model
 Material is based on ‘Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide’ , 6th Edition

Communication Process
Protocol Data Units & Encapsulation

67
Protocol Data Units & Encapsulation

 ThePDUs are named according to the

protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
 Data - The general term for the PDU used at the
Application layer
 Segment - Transport Layer PDU
 Packet - Internetwork Layer PDU
 Frame - Network Access Layer PDU
 Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting
data over the medium
68
Communication Process
 A complete communication process includes these steps:
 Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end device
 Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol stack
in the source end device
 Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the
stack
 Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of media
and any intermediary devices
 Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination end
device
 Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the
destination device
 Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of the
destination end device
Communication Process

70
Encapsulation

71
Decapsulation

72
 Addressing in the Network
 There are various types of addresses that must be included to
successfully deliver the data from a source application running
on one host to the correct destination application running on
another. Using the OSI model as a guide, we can see the different
addresses and identifiers that are necessary at each layer.
 Getting the Data to the End Device
 During the process of encapsulation, address identifiers are added
to the data as it travels down the protocol stack on the source host .
 The first identifier, the host physical address, is contained in the header of the
Layer 2 PDU, called a frame.

Getting the Data to the End Device

 Layer 3 protocols are primarily designed to move data from one

local network to another local network within an internetwork.
 Whereas Layer 2 addresses are only used to communicate between
devices on a single local network
Getting the Data to the End Device

 At Layer 4, information contained in the PDU identify the specific

process or service running on the destination host device that will
act on the data being delivered