This document discusses the concepts of zeros, poles, and residues of complex functions. It defines that a function has a zero of order n at a point if both the function and its first n-1 derivatives are equal to 0 at that point. Poles occur when the principal part of a Laurent series expansion is finite. The residue of a function at a pole is defined as the coefficient of the 1/(z-a) term in the Laurent series. The Residue Theorem states that the integral of an analytic function around a closed contour equals the sum of the residues inside the contour.
This document discusses the concepts of zeros, poles, and residues of complex functions. It defines that a function has a zero of order n at a point if both the function and its first n-1 derivatives are equal to 0 at that point. Poles occur when the principal part of a Laurent series expansion is finite. The residue of a function at a pole is defined as the coefficient of the 1/(z-a) term in the Laurent series. The Residue Theorem states that the integral of an analytic function around a closed contour equals the sum of the residues inside the contour.
This document discusses the concepts of zeros, poles, and residues of complex functions. It defines that a function has a zero of order n at a point if both the function and its first n-1 derivatives are equal to 0 at that point. Poles occur when the principal part of a Laurent series expansion is finite. The residue of a function at a pole is defined as the coefficient of the 1/(z-a) term in the Laurent series. The Residue Theorem states that the integral of an analytic function around a closed contour equals the sum of the residues inside the contour.
This document discusses the concepts of zeros, poles, and residues of complex functions. It defines that a function has a zero of order n at a point if both the function and its first n-1 derivatives are equal to 0 at that point. Poles occur when the principal part of a Laurent series expansion is finite. The residue of a function at a pole is defined as the coefficient of the 1/(z-a) term in the Laurent series. The Residue Theorem states that the integral of an analytic function around a closed contour equals the sum of the residues inside the contour.
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Integration by the Method
of Residues Zeros and Singularities • If a function is analytic in a domain D and is zero at a point z=a in D, then f(z) is said to have a zero at that point z=a. • If not only f(z) but also the derivatives f’(z), f’’(z)…. (z) are all zero at z=a and , then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at the point z=a. • For example, if f(a)=0, f’(a) , then f has a zero of first order or a simple zero at z=a. • If f(a)=0, f’(a)=0, but f’’(a) , then the zero of f at z=a is of the second order, etc. • The zero is of called n-th order at infinity if f(1/z) has a zero at z=0. Example 1 a) Sin z: simple zeros at z=0, ±π, ±2π, … b) : 3rd order zero at z=a c) : 2nd order zeros at z=0, ±2π, ±4π, … d) : By definition, , at z=0
If is analytic in some neighborhood of a point z=a and has a zero of nth
order at a, it follows that from Taylor’s theorem that the series is given by:
] • A point a is called an isolated point of a set S, if it has a neighborhood which does not contain further points of S. • A point b is called a limit point of S, if every neighborhood of b (no matter how small) contains at least one point (other than b) of S (and hence infinitely many points of S)
Example 2 a) The set of points z=n (n=1, 2, …) consists wholly of isolated points. b) The set of point z=i/n on the imaginary axis consists wholly of isolated points and has one limit point , namely z=0, which does not belong to S c) The set of complex numbers z for which |z|<1 has no isolated points Theorem 1 The zeros of an analytic function are isolated.
• Analytic function may have different types of singularities.
• If has an isolated singularity at a point z=a, then it can be represented by its Laurent series. (1) valid throughout some neighborhood of z=a. • The second part (with coefficients , is called the principal part of f(z). • If from some n on, all the coefficients are zero, say, , and for all n>m, then Eq. (1) becomes (2) • In this case where the principal part consists of finitely many terms, the singularity of f at z=a is called a pole, and m is called the order of the pole. • If an analytic function f has a singularity other than a pole, this singularity is called an essential singularity of f. Thus all singularities which are not isolated are essential singularities. • A singular point of an analytic function f(z) is the point where the function ceases to be analytic, i.e. to be differentiable; it goes to infinity. Example 3 Find the poles and the order of singularity of the following function:
Solution We write
- In this form, we can clearly see that the function goes to infinity when
z=0 and when z=2. So these are the poles.
- The derivative will be zero after the 6th differentiation, and so the pole is of the 5th order. Homework Find the location and type of singularity of the following function:
Solution Residues • Cauchy’s integral theorem, for any contour C in the neighborhood of a point z=a (no singularity)
• For a the existence of a pole or isolated singularity at z=a, with a in
the interior of C, we can write the Laurent series for 0<|z-a|<R:
where R is the distance from a to the nearest singular point of f(z).
• The Laurent series coefficient is in general given by: • In particular, for n=1, becomes (1) Replacing by (2) and therefore (3) with the integration being taken in the counterclockwise sense around a simple closed path C which lies in the domain 0<|z-a|<R and contains the point z=a in its interior. • The coefficient in Eq. (1) (2) and (3) above is called the residue of f(z) at z=a. • Written as (4)
Example 1 Integrate the function, around the unit circle C in the counterclockwise sense. Solution Now
therefore
Here, Hence ). To find Simple Poles If f(z) has a simple pole at a point z=a, the corresponding Laurent series is of the form (0<|z-a|<R) where Multiply both sides by :
If we let z approach a, the right-hand side approaches and we obtain
(5) Example 2: ; pole at a=1. • For simple poles, another useful formula which can be used to find the residue is given by (proof is given in the book): • If the function f(z) can be expressed as
then the residue can be obtained as
(6) Example 3 Find the residues at those singular points which lie inside the circle of | z|=1.5. Solution Simple poles at, Using Eq. (6)
lies outside the circle, but lies within it
This means the integral of the function is, , with C being a unit circle The Residue Theorem Let f(z) be a function which is analytic inside a simple closed path C and on C, except for finitely many singular points , ,…., inside C. Then
the integral being taken in the counterclockwise sense around C.
Example 4 Integrate function around the unit circle Solution
so, the simple poles occur at z=0, z=1 with corresponding residues of -4 and +1. Therefore, if both points lie within the circle, then
1993 S C M R 603 -Competent Authority is Conferred With Discretion to Decide Whether a Departmental Inquiry Through an Inquiry Officer Was Not Necessary Such Decision is Not Controlled by Any Prerequisite or Guidelines
1993 S C M R 603 -Competent Authority is Conferred With Discretion to Decide Whether a Departmental Inquiry Through an Inquiry Officer Was Not Necessary Such Decision is Not Controlled by Any Prerequisite or Guidelines
