E S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

VILLUPURAM – 605 601

PH3256 - PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

Prof. A. Selvam, M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed., SET.,(Ph.D.)

Head of the Department
Department of Science & Humanities
Hello:99763 06080

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 1.1. Introduction

Conducting materials are low resistivity materials, which conduct heat as

well as electricity. Electrical conduction is due to free electrons, whereas normal
conduction is due to free electrons as well as phonons.

Conductors:
The electrical conductivity in the order of . Hence they are known as
conductors Conducting materials are the materials having high electrical and
thermal conductivities. Low resistive materials are also generally known as
conducting materials.

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Bound Electrons:
All the valence electrons in an isolated atom are bound to their parent nuclei
which are called as ‘bound electrons’
Free Electrons:
In a solid, due to the boundaries of neighbouring atoms overlap each other, the
valence electrons find continuity from atom to atom. Therefore, they can move easily
throughout the solid. All such valence electrons of its constituent atoms in a solid are
called free electrons.

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 1.2. Conducting Materials
Conducting materials are classified in to three major types. They are

• Zero resistive materials

• Low resistive materials
• High resistive materials
Zero resistive materials:
The super conductors like alloys of aluminium, zinc, gallium, niobium, etc., are a
special class of materials. These materials conduct electricity almost with zero
resistance blow transition temperature. Thus, they are called zero resistive materials.
These materials are used for saving energy in the power systems, super
conducting
18/03/2024 magnets, memory storage elements
Prof. A. Selvam, etc.,
M.Sc., M.Phil.,SET.,(Ph.D) 4
Low resistive materials:

The metals like silver, aluminium and alloys have high electrical conductivity.

These materials are called low resistive materials. They are used as conductors,

electrical power transmission and distribution, winding wires in motors and

transformers.
High resistive materials:
The materials like tungsten, platinum, nichrome etc., have high resistive and
low temperature co-efficient of resistance. These materials are called high resistive
materials. Such a metals and alloys are used in the manufacturing of resistors, heating
elements, resistance thermometers.
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 1.3. Classical Free Electron Theory

It is a macroscopic theory, proposed by Drude and Lorentz in1900. According

to this theory, the free electrons are mainly responsible for electrical conduction in
metals. This theory obeys laws of classical mechanics.

1.4. Quantum Free Electron Theory

It is a microscopic theory, proposed by sommerfeld in 1928. According to this

theory, the electrons in a metals move in a constant potential. This theory obeys laws of
quantum mechanics.
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 1.5. Zone or band Theory

Bloch proposed this theory in the year 1928. According to this theory, the free
electrons move in a periodic potential. This theory explains electrical conductivity
based on the energy bands.

1.6. Classical Free Electron Model

Free electron theory of metals was proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to
explain electrical conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H.A.
Lorentz in the year 1909.
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 1.7. Drude & Lorentz Theory
Principle:

According to this theory, a metal consists of a very large number of free

electrons. These free electrons can move freely throughout the volume of the metal.
They are fully responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.

Explanation:
We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with
positive charge surrounded by the electrons of negative charge.
The electros in the inner shells are called core electros and those
in the outermost shell are called valence electrons.
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 1.8. Postulates of free electron theory
Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form an electron gas.
These free electrons move randomly in all possible directions just like the gas
molecules in a container.
In the absence of electrical field:
When an electrical field is not applied, the free
electrons move everywhere in a random manner. They
collide with other free electrons and positive ion core.
This collision is known as elastic collision.

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In the presence of electric field:

When the electrical field is applied, the electrons get some amount of energy
from the applied electric field and they begin to move towards the positive potential.

In the opposite direction to the applied electric

field. Since electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they
obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases. It is defined as
the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a
metal in a particular direction by the application of an
electrical field

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Drift Velocity (Vd):

The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron
in particular direction, due to the applied electric field.

Drift velocity = m/s

Mean free path (λ):

The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied electric field is known as mean free path. It is the
product of drift velocity of free electron and collision time.

λ=
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Collision time ():

The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions
is known as collision time. It is expressed mathematically as

Relaxation time ():

The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position due to the application of an external electrical field is called
relaxation time. It is approximately equal to second.

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 1.9. Derivation of Electrical Conductivity
Definition:

The amount of electrical charge conducted per unit time across unit area of a
solid given by

-----(1)

Therefore, from eqn. (1) is given by,

Where J is the current density and it is given by . Also, ( according to ohm’s law )

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Expression for electrical conductivity:

We know in the absence of external electric field, the motion of electrons in a metal
moves randomly in all directions. When electric fi rod, the electron moves in opposite
direction to the applied field with velocity v d. this velocity is known as drift velocity.

Lorentz force acting on the electron

-----(1)
This force is known as driving of the electron. Due to
this force, the electron gains acceleration ‘a’. From
motion, the Newton’s force second law of
-----(2)
From equations

(or) -----(3)
The acceleration of electron is given by,
Acceleration (a) =

Substituting equation , -----(5)

Where is the electrical conductivity of velocity is given as
-----(6)
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Substituting equation we have

-----(7)
in terms of effective mass of an electron,
-----(8)
From microscopic form of Ohm’s law, the current density ‘J’ is expressed as,
----(9)
On comparing equations (8) & (9), we have
Electrical conductivity
-----(10)
Equation (10) is known as expression for electrical conductivity.

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 1.10. Derivation of Thermal Conductivity
Definition:

It is defined as the amount of heat flowing per unit time through the material
having unit area of cross section per unit temperature gradient.

Thermal conductivity of the material,

Q –Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross sectional area.

–Temperature gradient.

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Expression for thermal conductivity:

Let us consider a uniform rod with temperatures (Hot) at end and (cold) at end .
Heat flows from hot end to the hold end. Let us consider cross sectional areawhich is at a
distance equal to the mean free path of t in fig.

The conduction electron per unit value is n and

average velocity of these electrons is v. During the
movement of electrons in the rod, the collision takes
place. Hence, the electrons near A lose their kinetic
energy while electrons near B gain kinetic energy.

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At A, average kinetic energy of an electron
= -----(1)
At B average kinetic energy of the electron
= -----(2)

The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B

-
-
-----(3)
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B
.

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The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time

-----(4)

Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time

-----(5)

Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time

-----(6)

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But from the basic definition of thermal conductivity,
-----(7)
On comparing equations (6) & (7), we have

-----(8)
We know that for the metals, Relaxation time = collision time

-----(9)
Substituting equation (9) in the equation (8), we have

-----(10)
Equation (10) is known as expression for thermal conductivity.

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 1.11. Widemann – Franz Law
Statement:

It states that for the metals, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical

conductivity is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This ratio is a constant

for all metals at given temperature.

Where L is known as Lorentz number. Its value is at T = 293 K.

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Derivation:

Widemann –Frantz law is derived from the expressions of thermal conductivity

and electrical conductivity of metal.
We know that, Electrical conductivity of a metal
-----(1)
Thermal conductivity of a metal
-----(2)
On comparing equations (1) & (2), we have

-----(3)

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We know that the kinetic energy of an electron
Or ----(4)

Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we have

-----(5)
where L = is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number
-----(6)
Equation (6) is known as expression for Widemann Franz law.

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 1.12. Lorentz Number
Lorentz Number: The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of the metal and absolute
temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is known as Lorentz number and it is given by
. Its value is at T = 293 K

1.13. Success of classical free electron theory

• It is used to verify Ohm’s Law.
• The electrical and Thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by this theory.
• It is used to derive Wiedamann - Franz law.
• It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

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 1.14. Drawbacks of classical free electron theory
• It is failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, Paramagnetism,
ferromagnetism and black body radiation.
• It is a macroscopic theory. It is rectified by quantum theory.
• It cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors or insulators using this
model.
• It states that all the free electrons will absorb energy, but quantum theory states that
only free electrons will absorb energy.
• Theoretical and experimental value of Lorentz number is not matched. Theoretical and
experimental value of specific heat (4.5 R  3R) and electronic specific heat (3/2 R 
0.01R) is not matched.
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 1.15. Quantum free electron theory

• The drawbacks of classical free electron theories were removed by Sommerfeld

in 1928. Quantum concepts are used in classical theory and hence it is known
as quantum free electron theory.

• He applied Schrodinger’s wave equation and De-Broglie’s concept of matter

waves to obtain the expression for electron energies.

• He substituted the quantum statistics of Fermi-Dirac in place of the classical

statistics and hence, it is known as the quantum free electron theory.

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1.16. Basic assumption of Quantum free electron theory
• The electrons are considered as free electron gas.

• The electrons possess wave nature.

• Free electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and Pauli’s exclusion principle.

• The free electron is fully responsible for electrical conduction.

• The allowed energy levels of an electron are quantized.

• The values of electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat, optical

absorption, ferromagnetic susceptibility are determined by quantum free electron
theory of solids.
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 1.17. Merits of Quantum free electron theory

• In this theory, the electrons are treated quantum mechanically rather than
classically.

• Quantum theory successfully explains the ohm’s law.

• It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, photoelectric

effect, Compton effect and specific heat capacity of metals.

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 1.18. Demerits of Quantum free electron theory

• It fails to explain the classification between metals, semiconductors and

insulators.

• It fails to give the reason for positive value of Hall coefficient.

• It can’t be able to explain the transport properties of metals.

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 1.19. Particle in a THREE dimensional box

The solution of one dimension potential well is extended for a three

dimensional potential box. In a three dimensional potential box the particle can move
in any direction .so we use three quantum numbers.

Therefore, instead of one quantum number n, we have to use three quantum

numbers, ,and , corresponding to the three coordinate axes namely x, y and z
respectively.

If are the lengths of the box as shown in fig, along x, y and z axes, then,

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If as for a cubical box then
------(1)
The corresponding normalized wave function is
sin
sin ------(2)
From the equations (1), (2), we understand that several combinations of the three
quantum numbers and lead to different energy eigen values and eigen function.

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The corresponding wave functions is written as

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 1.20. Degenerate States

For several combinations of quantum numbers, we have the same energy

eigen value but different eigen function. Such a state of energy levels is called
degenerate state.

The three combinations of quantum numbers (1,1,2),(1,2,1) and (2,1,1)

which give the same Eigen value but different Eigen functions are called 3- fold
degenerate state.

Example: If ( , ) is (1,1,2) ,(1,2,1) and ( 2,1,1) Then

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 The corresponding wave functions are

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 1.20. Fermi – Dirac Distribution Function

Fermi - Dirac Distribution Function In a metal at zero Kelvin

temperature, the highest filled energy level is called the Fermi level and the
energy possessed by the electrons in that level is known as Fermi energy.

Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin
like electron. Fermi distribution function gives information about the distribution
of electrons among the various energy levels as a function of temperature.

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It is given by,

The probability value F(E) lies between 0 and 1.

• If F(E) = 1, the energy level is occupied by an electron.

• If F(E) = 0, the energy level is vacant.

• If F(E) = 0.5, then there is a 50% chance for finding the electron in the energy
level.

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 1.21. Significance of fermi energy

• It gives information about the velocities of the electrons which participate

in ordinary electrical conduction.

• Fermi velocity of conduction electron is can be calculated from it.

• It is used to understand the specific heat capacity of solids at ordinary

temperature.

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 1.22. Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function
The Fermi level varies with respect to temperature as given below. At ‘T’
is equal to zero Kelvin temperature () At , the electrons are filled up to a
maximum energy level called Fermi energy level . All the energy levels above
the Fermi energy levels are empty.

Case(i) When , equation 1 becomes

Therefore, chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level.

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 Case(ii) When , equation 1 becomes

Therefore, chance for the electron not to be filled within the Fermi energy level.

Case(iii) When equation 1 becomes

Therefore, chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level.

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The Fermi function at 0 kelvin can also be represented graphically as shown in fig.

At any temperature other than zero:

When temperature is raised slowly from absolute zero, the Fermi
distribution function smoothly decreases to zero. The electrons lose their quantum
mechanical character and it reduces to classical Boltzmann distribution.
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 1.23. Density of energy states

The Fermi function F(E) gives only the

probability of filling up of electrons in a given

energy state.

Density of states is defined as the number

of states per unit volume in an energy interval and

Density of states Z(E)dE

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 The sphere is further divided in to many shells and each of this shell
represents a particular combination of quantum numbers and , therefore
represents a particular energy value.

We know that a number of available energy levels can be obtained for various
combinations of quantum numbers and
Therefore

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