0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views53 pages

02know Your Data-Lecture2-3

This document discusses data mining concepts related to understanding data. It covers data objects and attribute types, basic statistical descriptions of data, data visualization, and measuring data similarity. The key points are that data mining involves analyzing data objects that have attributes, understanding the central tendency and dispersion of attributes is important, and visualizing and measuring similarity help characterize relationships in data.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views53 pages

02know Your Data-Lecture2-3

This document discusses data mining concepts related to understanding data. It covers data objects and attribute types, basic statistical descriptions of data, data visualization, and measuring data similarity. The key points are that data mining involves analyzing data objects that have attributes, understanding the central tendency and dispersion of attributes is important, and visualizing and measuring similarity help characterize relationships in data.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 53

DATA MINING

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER CS 4434/5434 AND DASE 4435 DR. OLUWATOSIN


SCIENCE , UNIVERSITY OF DATA MINING, OLUWADARE, 2023
COLORADO, COLORADO FALL 2023
SPRINGS.

Lecture 3: Know Your Data


Slides Adapted from Jiawei Han et al. and Jianlin Cheng
Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques

— Chapter 2 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei


University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber, and Pei. All rights reserved.
2
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

3
Types of Data Sets
 Record
 Relational records
 Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla
crosstabs

wi
n
y
 Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
 Transaction data
 Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
 World Wide Web
Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0
 Social or information networks
 Molecular Structures
 Ordered TID Items
 Video data: sequence of images
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
 Temporal data: time-series
 Sequential Data: transaction sequences 2 Beer, Bread
 Genetic sequence data 3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial data: maps 5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Image data:
 Video data:

4
Important Characteristics of Structured Data

 Dimensionality
 Curse of dimensionality
 Sparsity
 Only presence counts
 Resolution
 Patterns depend on the scale
 Distribution
 Centrality and dispersion

5
Data Objects

 Data sets are made up of data objects.


 A data object represents an entity.
 Examples:
 sales database: customers, store items, sales
 medical database: patients, treatments
 university database: students, professors, courses
 Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
 Data objects are described by attributes.
 Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.

6
Attributes
 Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables):
a data field, representing a characteristic or feature
of a data object.
 E.g., customer _ID, name, address
 Types:
 Nominal

 Binary

 Numeric: quantitative

 Interval-scaled

 Ratio-scaled

7
Data Attributes
 Attribute refers to the characteristic of the data
object.
 The nouns defining the characteristics are used

interchangeably: Attribute, dimension, feature,


and variable.
Field Characteristic term Used

Data Warehousing Feature

Database and Data Mining Attribute

Statistic Variable

Machine Learning Dimension

8
Attribute Types
 Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
 Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
 e.g., cat or dog
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
 e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
 Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
 the positive (1) and negative (0) outcomes of a disease test.
 Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
9
Numeric Attribute Types
 Quantity (integer or real-valued)
 Interval
 Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
 Values have order
 E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
 No true zero-point
 Ratio
 Inherent zero-point
 We can speak of values as being an order of
magnitude larger than the unit of measurement
(10 K˚ is twice as high as 5 K˚).
 e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts,
monetary quantities

10
Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
 Discrete Attribute
 Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

 E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
 Sometimes, represented as integer variables

 Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
 Continuous Attribute
 Has real numbers as attribute values

 E.g., temperature, height, or weight

 Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits


 Continuous attributes are typically represented as

floating-point variables
11
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

12
Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
 Motivation
 To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
 Data dispersion characteristics
 median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
 Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
 Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
 Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
 Dispersion analysis on computed measures
 Folding measures into numerical dimensions
 Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube

13
Measuring the Central Tendency
 Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x   xi   x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i 1 N
n
Weighted arithmetic mean:
w x

i i
 Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x i 1
n
 Median: w
i 1
i
 Middle value if odd number of values, or average of
the middle two values otherwise
 Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
n / 2  ( freq )l
median  L1  ( ) width
 Mode freq median
 Value that occurs most frequently in the data
 Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
 Empirical formula: mean  mode  3  (mean  median)
14
Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
 Median, mean and mode of symmetric

symmetric, positively and


negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

March 18, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15


Measuring the Dispersion of Data
 Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
 Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
 Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
 Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
 Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
 Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than Q3 + 1.5 x IQR or Q1 – 1.5 x IQR
 Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
 Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)

1 n 1 n 2 1 n 1 n 1 n 2
s 
2

n  1 i 1
( xi  x ) 
2
[ xi  ( xi ) ]
n  1 i 1 n i 1
2
   ( xi   )   xi   2
2

N i 1
2

N i 1
 Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

16
Boxplot Analysis
 Five-number summary of a distribution
 Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
 Boxplot
 Data is represented with a box
 The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
 The median is marked by a line within the
box
 Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
 Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually

17
Boxplot Analysis Example

 Distribution A is positively skewed, because the whisker and half-box are longer on
the right side of the median than on the left side.
 Distribution B is approximately symmetric, because both half-boxes are almost the
same length (0.11 on the left side and 0.10 on the right side).
 Distribution C is negatively skewed because the whisker and half-box are longer on
the left side of the median than on the right side.
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/edu/power-pouvoir/ch12/5214889-eng.htm 18
Visualization of Data Dispersion: 3-D Boxplots

March 18, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19


Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

 The normal (distribution) curve


 From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the

measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)


 From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
 From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

20
Standard deviation in a Normal Distribution

Images/google 21
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

 Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary


 Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
 Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi
 Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of
one univariant distribution against the corresponding
quantiles of another
 Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
22
Histogram Analysis
 Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as 40
bars 35
 It shows what proportion of cases 30
fall into each of several categories
25
 Differs from a bar chart in that it is
20
the area of the bar that denotes the
value, not the height as in bar 15
charts, a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5
 The categories are usually specified
0
as non-overlapping intervals of 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
some variable. The categories (bars)
must be adjacent

23
Homework 1
 Homework 1 has been posted at the course web
site and on Canvas.

 Due Sept. 12, 2023

 Submit it to Canvas

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24


March 18, 2024
Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

 The two histograms


shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
 The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
 But they have rather
different data
distributions

25
Quantile Plot
 Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
 Plots quantile information
 For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f indicates
i i
that approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or
equal to the value xi

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26


Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
 Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
 View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
 Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.

27
Scatter plot
 Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
 Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane

28
Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

 The left half fragment is positively


correlated
 The right half is negative correlated

29
Uncorrelated Data

30
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

31
Similarity and Dissimilarity
 Similarity
 Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are

 Value is higher when objects are more alike

 Often falls in the range [0,1]

 Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)


 Numerical measure of how different two data objects

are
 Lower when objects are more alike

 Minimum dissimilarity is often 0

 Upper limit varies

 Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity

32
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data matrix
 n data points with p  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 
dimensions  ... ... ... ... ... 
 Two modes x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 Dissimilarity matrix
 n data points, but  0 
 d(2,1) 0 
registers only the  
distance  d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
 
 A triangular matrix  : : : 
 Single mode
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0

33
Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Can take 2 or more states, e.g., red, yellow, blue,


green (generalization of a binary attribute)
 Method 1: Simple matching
 m: # of matches, p: total # of variables
d (i, j)  p 
p
m
 Method 2: Use a large number of binary attributes
 creating a new binary attribute for each of the
M nominal states

34
Class Example: Method 1
 0 
 d(2,1) 0 
 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
 
: : :
  d (i, j)  p p m
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0

35
Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data Object i

 Distance measure for symmetric


binary variables:
 Distance measure for asymmetric
binary variables:
 Jaccard coefficient (similarity
measure for asymmetric binary
variables):
 Note: Jaccard coefficient is the same as “coherence”:

36
Variables (q, r, s ,t)
 q is the number of attributes that equal 1 for
both objects i and j,
 r is the number of attributes that equal 1 for
object i but equal 0 for object j,
 s is the number of attributes that equal 0 for
object i but equal 1 for object j, and
 t is the number of attributes that equal 0 for both
objects i and j.

37
Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 Gender is a symmetric attribute
 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary attributes
 Let the values Y(yes) and P(positive) be 1, and the value N(no
and negative) 0

38
Calculate the Dissimilarity
 d(Jack, Mary) = ?
 d(Jack, Jim). = ?
OR
 d(Jim, Jack) = ?

 q is the number of attributes that equal 1 for both objects i and j,


 r is the number of attributes that equal 1 for object i but equal 0 for object j,
 s is the number of attributes that equal 0 for object i but equal 1 for object j,
and
 t is the number of attributes that equal 0 for both objects i and j.

39
Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 Gender is a symmetric attribute
 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary attributes
 Let the values Y(yes) and P(positive) be 1, and the value N(no
and negative) 0
01
d ( jack , mary )   0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim )   0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )   0.75
11 2
40
Comment on the Result
 What does the measurement suggest?
 These measurements suggest that Jim and

Mary are unlikely to have a similar disease


because they have the highest dissimilarity
value among the three pairs.

 Of the three patients, Jack and Mary are the


most likely to have a similar disease.

41
Standardizing Numeric Data
x
z   
 Z-score:
 X: raw score to be standardized, μ: mean of the population, σ:
standard deviation
 the distance between the raw score and the population mean in
units of the standard deviation
 negative when the raw score is below the mean, “+” when above
 An alternative way: Calculate the mean absolute deviation
s f  1n (| x1 f  m f |  | x2 f  m f | ... | xnf  m f |)
where m f  1n (x1 f  x2 f  ...  xnf )
xif  m f
.

 standardized measure (z-score):


zif  sf
 Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using standard
deviation

42
Example:
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data Matrix
x2 x4
point attribute1 attribute2
4 x1 1 2
x2 3 5
x3 2 0
x4 4 5
2 x1
Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)
x3
0 4 x1 x2 x3 x4
2
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 5.1 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

43
Distance on Numeric Data: Minkowski Distance
 Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two
p-dimensional data objects, and h is the order (the
distance so defined is also called L-h norm)
 Properties
 d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
 d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
 d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
 A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric
44
Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
 h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance


d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.


 This is the maximum difference between any component
(attribute) of the vectors

45
Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
x2 x4
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
4 x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

2 x1
Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 x3 2 5 0
0 2 4 x4 3 1 5 0
46
Ordinal Variables

 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous


 Order is important, e.g., rank
 Can be treated like interval-scaled
 replace x by their rank
if
rif {1,..., M f }
 map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing
i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif 1
zif 
M f 1
 compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-
scaled variables

47
Attributes of Mixed Type
 A database may contain all attribute types
 Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, numeric,

ordinal
 One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects
 pf  1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j) 
 pf  1 ij( f )
 f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
 f is numeric: use the normalized distance
 f is ordinal

Compute ranks rif and r 1
zif  if

Treat zif as interval-scaled M 1 f

48
Cosine Similarity
 A document can be represented by thousands of attributes, each
recording the frequency of a particular word (such as keywords) or
phrase in the document.

 Other vector objects: gene features in micro-arrays, …


 Applications: information retrieval, biologic taxonomy, gene feature
mapping, ...
 Cosine measure: If d1 and d2 are two vectors (e.g., term-frequency
vectors), then
cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d||: the length of vector d

49
Example: Cosine Similarity
 cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d|: the length of vector d

 Ex: Find the similarity between documents 1 and 2.

d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)

d1d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5=(42)0.5
= 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1)0.5=(17)0.5
= 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94

50
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

51
Summary
 Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled, ratio-
scaled
 Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web, image.
 Gain insight into the data by:
 Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays
 Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
 Measure data similarity
 Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.
 Many methods have been developed but still an active area of research.

52
References
 W. Cleveland, Visualizing Data, Hobart Press, 1993
 T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
 U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse. Information Visualization in Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
 L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
 H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Tech.
Committee on Data Eng., 20(4), Dec. 1997
 D. A. Keim. Information visualization and visual data mining, IEEE trans. on Visualization
and Computer Graphics, 8(1), 2002
 D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
 S. Santini and R. Jain,” Similarity measures”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 21(9), 1999
 E. R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed., Graphics Press,
2001
 C. Yu , et al., Visual data mining of multimedia data for social and behavioral studies,
Information Visualization, 8(1), 2009
53

You might also like