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Graph 3

1. The document discusses graph theory and modeling real-world problems using graphs with weighted edges. It provides the example of modeling an airline system with cities as vertices and flights as weighted edges where weights could represent distances, flight times, or fares. 2. Common problems involving weighted graphs are finding shortest paths between vertices. For the airline example, what are the shortest routes between cities based on distance, flight time, or fare? 3. The Four Color Theorem, first conjectured in 1852 and proved in 1976 with computer assistance, states that any map can be colored with no more than four colors such that no neighboring regions share the same color.

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Ezgi Bulut
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28 views35 pages

Graph 3

1. The document discusses graph theory and modeling real-world problems using graphs with weighted edges. It provides the example of modeling an airline system with cities as vertices and flights as weighted edges where weights could represent distances, flight times, or fares. 2. Common problems involving weighted graphs are finding shortest paths between vertices. For the airline example, what are the shortest routes between cities based on distance, flight time, or fare? 3. The Four Color Theorem, first conjectured in 1852 and proved in 1976 with computer assistance, states that any map can be colored with no more than four colors such that no neighboring regions share the same color.

Uploaded by

Ezgi Bulut
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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GRAPH THEORY 3

Many problems can be modeled using graphs with weights assigned to their edges.
As an illustration, consider how an airline system can be modeled. We set up the
basic graph model by representing cities by vertices and flights by edges. Problems
involving distances can be modeled by assigning distances between cities to the
edges. Problems involving flight time can be modeled by assigning flight times to
edges. Problems involving fares can be modeled by assigning fares to the edges.
Graphs that have a number assigned to each edge are called weighted graphs.
Several types of problems involving weighted graphs arise frequently. Determining a
path of least length between two vertices in a network is one such problem. For
instance, in the airline system represented by the weighted graph shown above, what
is a shortest path in air distance between Boston and Los Angeles? What
combinations of flights has the smallest total flight time (that is, total time in the air,
not including time between flights) between Boston and Los Angeles? What is the
cheapest fare between these two cities?
Example: Let's find the shortest paths between vertex 𝑎 and other vertices in the graph below
using Dijkstra's algorithm.

1.
2. Visited vertex
Adjacent vertices to and distances

Vertex is selected.

3. Adjacent vertices to and distances

4. is visited vertex.
2

Vertex is selected.
3. Adjacent vertices to and distances

2.

Vertex dis selected


3. Adjacent vertices to and distances
2.

Vertex eis selected.


3. Adjacent vertices to and distances

2.

Vertex zis selected.


Result: Shortest paths and distances from 𝑎 to other vertices
Example: Find the cheapest flight routes between San Francisco and other cities.
∞

∞ ∞
0 ∞

∞
∞

∞
Los Angeles,
Denver,
Chicago,
New York,

99(CH) 129(NY)

89(DE)

∞
39(LA)

∞
LA visited
Denver,
New York,

89(DE) 99(CH) 129(NY)

39(LA)

∞
Denver visited
Chicago,

CH(99) NY(129)

89(DE)

39(LA)
𝐿(𝑆𝐹,𝐶𝐻)=99,𝐿(𝑆𝐹,𝑁𝑌)=129
Chicago visited
Boston,
New York,
Atlanta,

178(CH,BO)

99(CH) 129(NY)
89(DE)

198(CH,AT)

39(LA)

∞
𝐿(𝑆𝐹,𝑁𝑌)=129,

Boston,
Atlanta,
Miami,

168(NY,BO)

99(CH)
89(DE) 128(NY)

198(CH,AT)

39(LA)

228(NY,MI)
,

Boston visited. There is no new city.


,

Atlanta visited

Miami,
City Path Fee
Los Angeles San Francisco-Los Angeles $39
Denver San Francisco-Denver $89
Chicago San Fransisco -Chicago $99
New York San Francisco- New York $129
Boston San Francisco-New York-Boston $168
Atlanta San Francisco-Chicago - Atlanta $198
Miami San Francisco – New York- Miami $228
What are the chromatic numbers of the graphs G and H?

The chromatic number of G is at least three, because


the vertices a, b, and c must
be assigned different colors. To see if G can be
The graph H is made up of the graph G with an edge
colored with three colors, assign red to a, blue
connecting a and g. Any attempt to
to b, and green to c. Then, d can (and must) be
color H using three colors must follow the same
colored red because it is adjacent to b and c.
reasoning as that used to color G, except at the
Furthermore, e can (and must) be colored green
last stage, when all vertices other than g have been
because it is adjacent only to vertices colored
colored. Then, because g is adjacent (in H)
red and blue, and f can (and must) be colored blue
to vertices colored red, blue, and green, a fourth
because it is adjacent only to vertices colored
color, say brown, needs to be used. Hence, H
red and green. Finally, g can (and must) be colored
has a chromatic number equal to 4.
red because it is adjacent only to vertices
colored blue and green. This produces a coloring of
G using exactly three colors.
In fact, there is no known efficient algorithm that, for every graph G, yields a
χ(G)-coloring. However, there are efficient algorithms that give nearly optimal
colorings a significant portion of the time. The algorithm that we consider is
an example of a greedy algorithm.
We close this section with the application of graph colorings to map colorings. A map of
South America is shown below. Suppose we wish to color its countries with as few
colors as possible such that no two countries that share a border receive the same
color.
Although it was probably believed much earlier by map makers, the Four-Color
Theorem was first formally conjectured in 1852 by an Englishman, Francis Guthrie
(1831–1899). Twenty-seven years later, an erroneous proof was published by the
English mathematician Arthur Kempe (1849–1922).
The error was not caught until 1890 when another English mathematician, Percy
Heawood (1861–1955), showed that Kempe’s arguments could only be made to prove a
Five Color Theorem.
The Four-Color Theorem was first correctly proved in 1976 at the University of
Illinois by the American mathematician Kenneth Appel and the German-born
American mathematician Wolfgang Haken. Their proof required hundreds of pages
of arguments, over 1200 hours of computer time, and ultimately the consideration of
1478 reducible configurations. It was the first computer aided proof and was quite
controversial at the time, since mathematicians could not check their argument by
hand.

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