Transport Layer

Module Objectives
Module Title: Transport Layer

Module Objective: Compare the operations of transport layer protocols in supporting end-to-
end communication.
Topic Title Topic Objective
Transportation of Data Explain the purpose of the transport layer in managing the transportation of
data in end-to-end communication.

TCP Overview Explain characteristics of TCP.

UDP Overview Explain characteristics of UDP.

Port Numbers Explain how TCP and UDP use port numbers.
TCP Communication Process Explain how TCP session establishment and termination processes facilitate
reliable communication.

Reliability and Flow Control Explain how TCP protocol data units are transmitted and acknowledged to
guarantee delivery.
UDP Communication Compare the operations of transport layer protocols in supporting end-to-end
communication.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
Transportation of Data

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 3
Transportation of Data
Role of the Transport Layer
 Responsible for
establishing a temporary
communication session
between two applications
and delivering data
between them.
 Process-to-Process
Communication
 Link between the
application layer and the
lower layers that are
responsible for network
transmission.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 4
Transportation of Data
Transport Layer Responsibilities
 Tracking the Conversation -
flowing between a source and a
destination application.
 Segmentation - Divides the data
into segments that are easier to
manage and transport. Header
used for reassembly is used for
tracking.
 Identifying the Application -
Ensures that even with multiple
applications running on a device,
all applications receive the
correct data via port numbers.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 5
Transportation of Data
Conversation Multiplexing
 Sending some types of data (for
example, a streaming video) across a
network, as one complete
communication stream, can consume all
of the available bandwidth.
 This will then prevent other
communications from occurring at the
same time.
 It would also make error recovery and
retransmission of damaged data difficult.

 Segmenting the data into smaller

chunks enables many different
communications to be multiplexed on To identify each segment of data, the transport layer
the same network. adds a header containing binary data organized into
several fields.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 6
Transportation of Data
Transport Layer Reliability
 TCP/IP provides two transport
layer protocols:
 Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
• Considered reliable which ensures
that all of the data arrives at the
destination.
• Additional fields needed in header
which increases size and delay.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Does not provide for reliability.
• Fewer fields and is faster than TCP.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 7
Transportation of Data
TCP With TCP, there are three basic operations
of reliability:
1. Numbering and tracking data segments
transmitted to a specific host from a
specific application
2. Acknowledging received data
3. Retransmitting any unacknowledged data
after a certain period of time

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 8
Transportation of Data
TCP (Cont.)

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 9
Transportation of Data
TCP (Cont.)

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 10
Transportation of Data
UDP
 While the TCP reliability functions provide more robust Use UDP for less overhead and to
communication between applications, they also incur reduce possible delays.
additional overhead and possible delays in transmission.
 Adding overhead to ensure reliability for some applications  Best-effort delivery (unreliable)
could reduce the usefulness of the application and can  No acknowledgment
even be detrimental.
 In such cases, UDP is a better transport protocol.  Similar to a non-registered letter

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 11
Transportation of Data
The Right Transport Layer Protocol for the Right Application

 TCP - databases, web

browsers, and email clients
require that all data that is
sent arrives at the
destination in its original
condition.
 UDP - if one or two
segments of a live video
stream fail to arrive, if
disruption in the stream,
may not be noticeable to Application developers must choose which transport
the user. protocol type is appropriate based on the requirements of
the applications.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 12
TCP Overview

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 13
TCP Overview
TCP Features
 Establishing a Session

• Connection-oriented protocol
• Ensures the application is ready to receive the
data
• Negotiate the amount of traffic that can be
forwarded at a given time
 Reliable Delivery

• Ensuring that each segment that the source

sends arrives at the destination
 Same-Order Delivery

• Numbering & Sequencing the segments

guarantees reassembly into the proper order
 Flow Control

• Regulate the amount of data the source

transmits © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 14
TCP Overview
TCP is a stateful protocol. A stateful protocol is a
TCP Header protocol that keeps track of the state of the
 Source and Destination Port used to identify communication session.
application
20 Bytes Total
 Sequence number used for data
reassembly
 Acknowledgement number indicates data
has been received and ready for next byte
from source
 Header length – length of TCP segment
header
 Control bits – purpose and function of TCP
segment
 Window size – number of bytes that can be
accepted at one time
 Checksum – Used for error checking of
segment header and data © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 15
TCP Overview
TCP Header

TCP Header Field Description

Source Port A 16-bit field used to identify the source application by port number.
Destination Port A 16-bit field used to identify the destination application by port number.
Sequence Number A 32-bit field used for data reassembly purposes.
A 32-bit field used to indicate that data has been received and the next byte expected from the
Acknowledgment Number
source.
Header Length A 4-bit field known as ʺdata offsetʺ that indicates the length of the TCP segment header.
Reserved A 6-bit field that is reserved for future use.
A 6-bit field used that includes bit codes, or flags, which indicate the purpose and function of the
Control bits
TCP segment.
Window size A 16-bit field used to indicate the number of bytes that can be accepted at one time.
Checksum A 16-bit field used for error checking of the segment header and data.
Urgent A 16-bit field used to indicate if the contained data is©urgent.
2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 16
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Sequence Number

 The TCP sequence number is a 32-bit

number that helps in providing a
sequence number that is suitable with
other transmitting bytes of the TCP
connection.
 TCP sequence number uniquely
identifies each data byte as it is a stream-
oriented protocol.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 17
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Sequence Number
 Sequence numbers are assigned in the
header of each packet.
 Represents the first data byte of the TCP
segment.
 During session setup, an initial sequence
number (ISN) is set - represents the
starting value of the bytes.
 As data is transmitted during the session,
the sequence number is incremented by
the number of bytes that have been
transmitted.
 Missing segments can then be identified.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 18
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Sequence Number

 Suppose that the data stream consists of a file consisting of 500,000 bytes, that the MTU is 1,000
bytes, and that the first byte of the data stream is numbered zero:

TCP constructs 500 segments out of the data stream.

The first segment gets assigned sequence number 0, the second segment gets assigned sequence
number 1000, the third segment gets assigned sequence number 2000, and so on.

Each sequence number is inserted in the sequence number field in the header of the appropriate TCP
segment.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 19
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Sequence Number
Example
• Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 5,000 bytes. The first byte
is numbered 10,001.What are the sequence numbers for each segment if
data are sent in five segments, each carrying 1,000 bytes?
Solution
• The following shows the sequence number for each segment:

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 20
TCP Overview
TCP Header

Acknowledgment Number
A 32-bit field used to indicate that data has been received and the nextt byte
expected from the source.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 21
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Acknowledgement Number

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 22
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Making Conversations Reliable

URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN

6 Bits
0 = OFF
1 = ON
• URG – if urgent data is issued.

• ACK – the Acknowledgement Number field is significant.

• PSH – push function

• RST – reset connection immediately.

• SYN – synchronize sequence numbers (open connection).

• FIN – no more data from sender. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 23
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Push Function

 TCP's push capability accomplishes two things:

The sending application informs TCP that data should be sent immediately.
The PSH flag in the TCP header informs the receiving host that the data
should be pushed up to the receiving application immediately.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 24
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Push Function

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 25
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Urgent Flag

• The URG flag is used to inform a receiving station that certain data within a segment is urgent
and should be prioritized.
• If the URG flag is set, the receiving station evaluates the urgent pointer, a 16-bit field in the
TCP header.
• This pointer indicates how much of the data in the segment, counting from the first byte, is
urgent. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 26
TCP Overview
TCP Header
Connection Reset
URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN

TCP at one end may deny a connection request, may abort an existing
connection, or may terminate an idle connection.

Denying a Connection Aborting a Terminating an Idle

 Suppose the TCP on one Connection Connection
side has requested a  One TCP may want  The TCP on one side
connection to a nonexistent to abort an existing may discover that the
port. connection due to TCP on the other side
 The TCP on the other side an abnormal has been idle for a long
may send a segment with situation. time.
its RST bit set to deny the  It can send an RST  It may send an RST
request. segment to close segment to end the
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 27
TCP Overview
Applications that use TCP

TCP handles all

tasks associated
with dividing the
data stream into
segments,
providing
reliability,
controlling data
flow, and
reordering
segments.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 28
Port Numbers

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 29
Port Numbers
Multiple Separate Communications
 TCP and UDP transport layer protocols use port numbers to manage multiple,
simultaneous conversations.

 The source port number is associated with the originating application on the local host
whereas the destination port number is associated with the destination application on the
remote host.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 30
TCP and UDP Overview
Port Numbers
 Source Port
• Originating application
port that is dynamically
generated by sending
device
• Example: Each
separate HTTP
conversation is tracked
based on the source
ports.
 Destination Port
• Tell the destination what
service is being
requested
• Example: Port 80 web
services are being
requested © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 31
TCP and UDP Overview
Socket Pairs
 Source and destination
port placed in segment
 Segments
encapsulated in IP
packet
 IP and port number =
socket
 Example:
192.168.1.7:80
 Sockets enable
multiple processes to
be distinguished
 Source port acts as a
return address © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 32
TCP and UDP Overview
Port Number Groups
Port Group Number Range Description

•These port numbers are reserved for common or popular services and applications
Well-known such as web browsers, email clients, and remote access clients.
0 to 1,023
Ports •Defined well-known ports for common server applications enables clients to easily
identify the associated service required.

•These port numbers are assigned by IANA to a requesting entity to use with
specific processes or applications.
•These processes are primarily individual applications that a user has chosen to
Registered
1,024 to 49,151 install, rather than common applications that would receive a well-known port
Ports
number.
•For example, Cisco has registered port 1812 for its RADIUS server authentication
process.

•These ports are also known as ephemeral ports.

Private and/ •The client’s OS usually assign port numbers dynamically when a connection to a
or Dynamic 49,152 to 65,535 service is initiated.
Ports •The dynamic port is then used to identify the client application during
communication. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 33
TCP and UDP Overview
Port Number Groups (Cont.)

Well
Known
Port
Numbers

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 34
TCP and UDP Overview
The netstat Command
 Network utility that
can be used to verify
connections
 By default, will
attempt to resolve IP
addresses to domain
names and port
numbers to well-
known applications
 -n option used to
display IPs and ports
in numerical form
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 35
TCP Communication Process

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 36
TCP Communication Process  Each application process
running on a server is
TCP Server Process configured to use a port
number.
 An individual server cannot
have two services assigned to
the same port number within
the same transport layer
services.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 37
TCP Communication Process
TCP Server Process (Cont.)

TCP is a full-duplex protocol, where each

connection represents two one-way
communication streams or sessions.

• An active server application assigned to a specific port

is considered open, which means that the transport
layer accepts, and processes segments addressed to
that port.
• Any incoming client request addressed to the correct
socket is accepted, and the data is passed to the server
application. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 38
TCP Communication Process
TCP Connection Establishment
 Step 2 – Server
acknowledges and
requests a session with
client.

 Step 3 – Client acknowledges

communication session with
server.
 Step 1 – Initiating client requests
a session with server.

The three-way handshake:

Establishes that the destination device is present on the network.
Verifies that the destination device has an active service and is accepting
requests on the destination port number that the initiating client intends to use.
Informs the destination device that the source client intends to establish a
communication session on that port number.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 39
TCP Communication Process
TCP Connection Establishment

URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 40
TCP Communication Process
Video Demonstration - TCP 3-Way Handshake

SYN
SYN, ACK
ACK

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 41
TCP Communication Process
TCP Session Termination

 To close a connection, the Finish (FIN) control flag must

be set in the segment header.
 To end each one-way TCP session, a two-way
handshake, consisting of a FIN segment and an
Acknowledgment (ACK) segment, is used.
 To terminate a single conversation supported by TCP,
four exchanges are needed toand/or
© 2016 Cisco end both
its affiliates. sessions.
All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 42
Reliability and Flow Control

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 43
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Flow Control – Window Size and Acknowledgments
 In the figure, the
source is transmitting
1,460 bytes of data
within each segment.
 Window size agreed
on during 3-way
handshake.
 Typically, PC B will not
wait for 10,000 bytes
before sending an
acknowledgment.
 PC A can adjust its
send window as it
receives
acknowledgments
from PC B. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 44
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability- Guaranteed and Ordered Delivery

• TCP can also help maintain the

flow of packets so that devices
do not become overloaded.
• There may be times when TCP
segments do not arrive at their
destination or arrive out of order.
• All the data must be received
and the data in these segments
must be reassembled into the
original order.
• Sequence numbers are
assigned in the header of each
packet to achieve this goal.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 45
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability – Data Loss and Retransmission
 No matter how well designed a Every time the sender sends a packet, it starts a timer. If an
acknowledgment
network is, data loss arrives before the timer expires, the timer is stopped and the sender
sends the next
occasionally occurs. packet (if it has one to send).
 TCP provides methods of
managing these segment
losses.
 Three mechanisms are used to
retransmit segments for
unacknowledged data:
o Stop and wait

o Go-Back-N.

o Selective repeat © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 46
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability – Data Loss and Retransmission

 No matter how well designed a

network is, data loss occasionally
occurs.
 TCP provides methods of
managing these segment losses.
 Three mechanisms are used to
retransmit segments for
unacknowledged data:
o Stop and wait

o Go-Back-N.

o Selective repeat
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 47
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability – Data Loss and Retransmission
Go-Back-N Example
 Packets 0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent.

 However, packet 1 is lost.

 The receiver receives packets 2 and 3, but they

are discarded because they are received out of
order (packet 1 is expected).

 When the receiver receives packets 2 and 3, it

sends ACK1 to show that it expects to receive
packet 1.

 However, these ACKs are not useful for the

sender because the ackNo is equal S f , not greater
that Sf .

 So the sender discards them. When the time-out

occurs, the sender resends packets 1, 2, and 3,
which are acknowledged.. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 48
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability – Data Loss and Retransmission (Cont.)
Selective repeat
 Host operating systems today
typically employ an optional
TCP feature called selective
acknowledgment (SACK),
negotiated during the three-
way handshake.
 If both hosts support SACK,
the receiver can explicitly
acknowledge which segments
(bytes) were received
including any discontinuous
segments. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 49
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Reliability – Data Loss and Retransmission (Cont.)
Selective Repeat Example
 At the sender, packet 0 is
transmitted and acknowledged.
 Packet 1 is lost.

 Packets 2 and 3 arrive out of order

and are acknowledged.
 When the timer times out, packet 1
(the only unacknowledged packet)
is resent and is acknowledged.
 The send window then slides.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 50
Reliability and Flow Control
TCP Flow Control – Congestion Avoidance
 Congestion causes
retransmission of lost
TCP segments
 Retransmission of
segments can make the
congestion worse
 To avoid and control
congestion, TCP employs
several congestion
handling mechanisms,
timers, and algorithms
 Example: Reduce the
number of bytes it sends
before receiving an
acknowledgment
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 51
Congestion Control
 Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the
network(the number of packets sent to the network) is The sender has two pieces of
greater than the capacity of the network (the number of information:
packets a network can handle).
 the receiver-advertised window
 Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and size
techniques to control the congestion and keep the load
 and the congestion window size
below the capacity.
(cwnd).
 Congestion happens in any system that involves
The actual size of the window is the
waiting.
minimum of these two:
 Congestion in a network or internetwork occurs
because routers and switches have queues (buffers
that hold the packets before and after processing).
 The packet is put in the appropriate output queue and
waits its turn to be sent.
 These queues are finite, so it is possible for more
packets to arrive at a router than the router can buffer.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 52
Congestion Policy
1. Slow start, exponential increase

1
cwnd
RTT
2
cwnd

RTT
4
cwnd

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 53
Congestion Policy
2. Congestion Avoidance: Additive Increase

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 54
Congestion Detection: Multiplicative Decrease
Most TCP implementations have two reactions:
1. If a time-out occurs, there is a stronger possibility of congestion; a segment has probably been
dropped in the network and there is no news about the following sent segments. In this case TCP
reacts strongly:
a) It sets the value of the threshold to half of the current window size.
b) It reduces cwnd back to one segment.
c) It starts the slow start phase again.
2. If three duplicate ACKs are received, there is a weaker possibility of congestion; a segment may have
been dropped but some segments after that have arrived safely since three duplicate ACKs are received. This is
called fast transmission and fast recovery.
 In this case, TCP has a weaker reaction as shown below:

a) It sets the value of the threshold to half of the current window size.

b) It sets cwnd to the value of the threshold (some implementations add three segment sizes to the
threshold).

c) It starts the congestion avoidance phase © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 55
UDP Overview and Communication

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 56
UDP Overview
UDP Features

• UDP is a stateless protocol – no tracking

• Reliability handled by application
• The pieces of communication in UDP are called datagrams
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 57
UDP Overview
UDP Features
The UDP header is far simpler than the TCP header because it only has four fields and requires
8 bytes (i.e. 64 bits).

UDP Header Field Description

Source Port A 16-bit field used to identify the source application by port number.

Destination Port A 16-bit field used to identify the destination application by port number.

Length A 16-bit field that indicates the length of the UDP datagram header.

Checksum A 16-bit field used for error checking of the datagram header and data.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 58
UDP Overview
Multiple Separate Communications
 Users expect to
simultaneously
receive and
send email, view
websites and
make a VoIP
phone call
 TCP and UDP
manage multiple
conversations
by using unique
identifiers called
port numbers.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 59
UDP Communication
UDP Low Overhead versus Reliability
 UDP not
connection-
oriented
 No
retransmission,
sequencing,
and flow
control
 Functions not
provided by the
transport layer
implemented
elsewhere

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 60
UDP Communication
UDP Datagram Reassembly
 UDP
reassembles
data in order
received and
forwards to
application
 Application
must identify
the proper
sequence

UDP: Connectionless and Unreliable

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 61
UDP Communication
UDP Server Processes and Requests
Note: The
Remote
Authentication
Dial-in User
Service
(RADIUS)
server shown in
the figure
provides
authentication,
authorization,
and accounting
services to
manage user
access.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 62
UDP Communication
UDP Client Processes

Clients Sending UDP Requests

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 63
UDP Communication
UDP Client Processes (Cont.)

Clients Sending UDP Requests

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 64
UDP Overview
Applications that use UDP
 Live video and multimedia applications -
These applications can tolerate some data loss
but require little or no delay. Examples include
VoIP and live streaming video.
 Simple request and reply applications -
Applications with simple transactions where a
host sends a request and may or may not receive
a reply. Examples include DNS and DHCP.
 Applications that handle reliability themselves
- Unidirectional communications where flow
control, error detection, acknowledgments, and
error recovery is not required, or can be handled
by the application. Examples include SNMP and
TFTP.
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 65
Quiz
What is the Primary Function of the Transport Layer?
a) Process to process delivery
b) Node-to-node delivery
c) Updating and maintenance of the routing table
d) Congestion control

The Transport Layer Receives Data in the Form of _____.

a) Byte streams
b) Packets
c) Bits stream
d) None of the above

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 66
Quiz
What is the Size of the UDP Packet Header in the Transport Layer?
a) 8 bytes
b) 16 bytes
c) 20 bytes
d) 12 bytes

Why is UDP, or User Datagram Protocol, Referred to as Connectionless?

a) Because the transport layer treats all UDP packets independently.
b) Because it sends data in the form of a stream of related packets.
c) Because it is received in the same order as it was sent.
d) Because it transmits data very quickly.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 67