UNIT 2: BIOLOGICAL

DEVELOPMENT
A. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
GENETIC FOUNDATIONS
“All children have a set of genetic instructions
that influence their characteristics at birth and
emerging physical features as they grow.” Some
characteristics awaken during sensitive periods
which are age ranges in which environmental
experiences are necessary for the child’s
development. Other characteristics are
controlled by genetics, this is known as
canalization.
Skills that are canalized include motor skills such
as crawling and sitting. Skills that are not
canalized are those that children are taught in
school such as reading and writing.

The environment continues to play a huge role in

the genetic expression at different times
throughout development.
Heredity (Nature vs. Nurture)

It is the most powerful and they are concepts that

not only teachers, but also parents need to be
aware of being the adults in a child’s life.
NATURE: transmission of characteristics from
parents to offspring.

NURTURE: altered by environmental factors such

as schooling, social interactions and physical
experiences.
Prenatal Development

There are three phases of prenatal development:

development of the zygote, development of the
embryo, and development of the fetus.

● ZYGOTE — a one-celled being. It releases

hormones for menstruation to stop and further
development has begun.
Prenatal Development

● EMBRYO — is between the periods from 2-8

weeks where major body parts begin to develop.

● FETUS — is then from 9 weeks until birth. In

this stage, the baby finalizes the limbs and the
internal organs.
B. PHYSICAL & MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT
The Growing Process

● DIFFERENTIATION — the cells and body

parts carrying out specific functions in the body.

● INTEGRATION — the cells and body parts

then work together to create the various systems
in the body.
Each child’s body is constantly growing and
changing. Sometimes the change is in small
progression over time (quantitative), or through a
rapid growth spurt that seems “overnight”
(qualitative).
Physical Development: Infancy - Age 2

Growth begins with the development of reflexes

and continues with the infants having more
strength and control of their heads, arms and legs.
Before their first year, infants are just beginning to
grab, grasp and crawl. After their first year, they
can grab hold of heavier objects, begin to walk,
and eventually run.
Children follow 2 types of development.

1. CEPHALOCAUDAL DEVELOPMENT
- the tendency for growth to follow a sequence in
which development moves from top to bottom.

For example, a child’s head develops sooner than his or her

legs. This is true both physical growth and motor
development.
2. PROXIMODISTAL GROWTH
- is the body’s tendency to grow from the center
of the body outward to the extremities.

An example of such a pattern is the early development of

muscular control of the trunk and arms relative to the
hands and fingers.
Physical Development: Early & Middle
Childhood

● Childhood years: Based on cultural practices and

experiences, some gross motor skills at this age
include: engaging in sports, tricycle riding, and
pretend play.

Some fine motor skills are based on children

asserting independence like: feeding, dressing, and
taking care of themselves.
● By middle childhood, fine and gross motor
skills are now more controlled and refined.

Organized sports are played, (especially

basketball), as well as more advanced arts and
crafts fine motor activities (i.e beadwork projects,
building model airplanes/cars.)
Early Adolescence

Children become “little adults” with the onset of

puberty (age ranges from 10-14). They go through
qualitative changes such as growth spurt, and
bodies form ability to reproduce.
● Girls have a menarche (first menstruation) along
with budding breast, pubic hair, and increased
hormone activity (estrogen).

● Boys have a spermache (first ejaculation

experience) along with penis enlargement, scrotum
changes, appearance of pubic hair and hormone
activity (testosterone).
Late Adolescence

Young adults (age ranges from 14-18) reach sexual

maturity and intimate activities such as hugging and
kissing.

Some teenagers could be involved in risky behavior

due to lack of brain maturation in areas of self-
control, impulse and improper assessment of
consequences.
How do I promote healthy physical
development?

● Promote healthy eating habits. Eat whole grains,

milk/dairy products, fruits and vegetables, and
meat.
● Prevent obesity. Exercise, reduce calorie intake,
reduce fat/sweet snacks, reduce carbonated drinks.
● Observe for possible eating disorders. If a child
is eating too little, lonely, depressed, anxious, and
sometimes abuse substances, it’s ANOREXIA.

If a child is eating fattening/unhealthy foods and

then tries to get rid of the food in their system by
vomiting/taking laxatives, it’s BULIMIA.
● Encourage physical activity. Provide yourself
different activities for different interests in
addition to organized sports like: volleyball,
dance, kickball, softball, karate, soccer.
C. NEUROSCIENCE AND BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT
Brain Development

The technological advances in neuroscience

allowed scientists to research and develop studies
about the human brain, especially in the first six
years of a child’s development. This period is a
phase of greater plasticity, which is the ability that
the brain has to change through the numerous
connections made between neurons for new
experience and learning.
● It is through plasticity that the brain alters its
structure and operations, and in this way, it
generates new knowledge and skills for a child’s
life.

● With neuroplasticity, the brain is able to modify

the physical structure, the chemicals, and the
function. This occurs through the experiences and
stimulus encountered by the child in his
interactions with the environment.
● From the birth period, it marks the beginning of
the psychomotor development, the learning of
movements of the head, arms, hands, legs, and
feet. Here is where the child makes new
discoveries.

● At two years, the children gain the ability to

freely move arms and legs, and have grown in
physical strength. They are able to socialize with
other children.
● Three-year old children develop fine motor
skills, which are the ability to use and control the
small muscles of the body, such as holding a
pencil to draw, or handling story books.

● When children are four to six years old, they

demonstrate interest in plays of make-believe and
recreational activities with peers. Social skills like
empathy, cooperation, trust, and solidarity also
develops.
As we can see, children are born with a great
potential of development and learning, especially
during the first six years of life, because of the
plasticity that the brain has. It resembles a sponge
by managing to apprehend a range of information
and knowledge.
 D. FACTORS AFFECTING
BIOLOGICAL/PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 10 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
DEVELOPMENT

Heredity— transmission of physical

characteristics from parents to children through
genes. (nature)

Environment— represents the sum total of

physical and psychological stimulation that the
child receives. (nurture)
Sex— Boys tend to be taller and physically
stronger than girls when puberty hits. However,
girls tend to mature faster during adolescence.

Exercise and Health— refers to the normal

playtime and sports activities which help the body
gain an increase in muscular strength.
Hormones— belong to the endocrine system and
influence various functions of our bodies.

Nutrition— everything the body needs to build and

repair itself comes from the food we eat.

Familial Influence— families have the most profound

impact in nurturing a child and determining the ways in
which they develops psychologically and socially.
Geographical Influences— where you live also has a
great influence on how your child turn out to be.

Socio-economic Status— determines the quality of

the opportunity a child gets. Studying in better
schools that are more expensive has benefits in the
long run.
Learning and Reinforcement— learning involves
much more than just schooling. It is also
concerned with building the child up mentally,
intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they
operate as healthy functional individuals in the
society.
F. THEORIES
1. Growth and Development Theory:
ARNOLD GESELL (1880 – 1961)
• Gesell Development Schedules, which can be used with children between
four weeks and six years of age. The test measures responses to
standardized materials and situations both qualitatively and quantitatively.
• Areas emphasized include motor and language development, adaptive
behavior, and personal-social behavior. The results of the test are expressed
first as developmental age (DA), which is then converted into developmental
quotient (DQ), representing “the portion of normal development that is
present at any age.” A separate developmental quotient may be obtained for
each of the functions on which the scale is built.
• Gesell’s observations of children allowed him to describe developmental
milestones in ten major areas: motor characteristics, personal hygiene,
emotional expression, fears and dreams, self and sex, interpersonal
relations, play and pastimes, school life, ethical sense, and philosophic
outlook. His training in physiology and his focus on developmental milestones
led Gesell to be a strong proponent of the “maturational” perspective of child
development.
• That is, he believed that child development occurs according to a
predetermined, naturally unfolding plan of growth. Gesell’s most notable
achievement was his contribution to the “normative” approach to studying
children. In this approach, psychologists observed large numbers of children
of various ages and determined the typical age, or “norms,” for which most
children achieved various developmental milestones.
• Although the developmental quotient is no longer accepted as a valid
measure of intellectual ability, Gesell remains an important pioneer in child
development and is recognized for his advances in the methodology of
carefully observing and measuring behavior and describing child
development. He created a foundation for subsequent research that
described both average developmental trends and individual differences in
development. He also inaugurated the use of photography and
observation through one-way mirrors as research tools.
2. The Five Ecological Systems
• Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is
a nested arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. He
organized them in order of how much of an impact they have on a
child.
• He named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and the chronosystem. Because the five systems are
interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s development
depends on its relationship with the others
I. The Microsystem
• The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and is the things
that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as
parents, siblings, teachers and school peers.
• Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be
influenced by other people in their environment and is also capable of
changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.
• Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can
influence how they treat them in return. The interactions within microsystems
are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s
development. If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents,
this is said to have a positive effect on the child. Whereas distant and
unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child.
 II. The Mesosystem
• The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and
teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
• The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function
independently but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this
interaction may influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem
is a system of microsystems.
• According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers
get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on
the child’s development, compared to negative effects on development if the
teachers and parents do not get along.
 III. The Exosystem
• The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal
social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly
influence them as they affect one of the microsystems.
• Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces,
parent’s friends and the mass media. These are environments in which the
child is not involved, and are external to their experience, but nonetheless
affects them anyway.
• An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development could be if one of
the parents had a dispute with their boss at work. The parent may come home
and have a short temper with the child as a result of something which
happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect on development
 IV. The Macrosystem
• The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture
that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and
perceptions about events that transpire in life.
• The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to
the specific environments of one developing child, but the already established
society and culture which the child is developing in. This can also include the
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of the
culture. For example, a child living in a third world country would experience
a different development than a child living in a wealthier country.
 V. The Chronosystem
• The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is
known as the chronosystem. This system consists of all of the
environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which influence
development, including major life transitions, and historical events. These
can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also
include non-normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or
having to move to a new house.
G. Current Research and Pedagogical
Applications
 PEDAGOGY
Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of
how knowledge and skills are imparted as an educational
context. It considers the interactions that take place during
the learning process.
HOW DOES PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS
CONTRIBUTE TO COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?

Cognitive development is HOW humans acquire,

organize, and learn how to use knowledge (Gauvain and
Richert, 2016). Meanwhile, pedagogy is the study of how
the acquisition/learning skills are used/imparted as an
educational context.
 How Does Pedagogy Impact The Learner?
1. Student-Centered Approach:
Pedagogy is a student-centered approach in which the students take
responsibility for learning in their ways

2.Encourages Teamwork:
The study methods encourage teamwork and group projects for the
students to meet like-minded individuals and work with them
3.Continuous Assessment Of Students:
Teachers evaluate the students regularly to see if they are
improving and moving towards their target outcomes

4. Develops Cognitive Skills:

Helps students to develop cognitive skills using evaluation, detailed
analysis, comprehension, and application of the courses
 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge is the combining of pedagogy and the
subject content knowledge which Shulman re-emphasized in the 1980s.
• LEE SHULMAN was a teacher education researcher who worked towards
expanding and improving knowledge about teaching and teacher
preparation. He posited that simply developing general pedagogical skills
(i.e to initiate, lead, and develop) were insufficient; he believed that the key
to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching rested at the intersection of
content and pedagogy.
• He established PCK as teachers' interpretations and transformations of
subject-matter knowledge in the context of facilitating student learning.
KEY ELEMENTS OF PCK
1. Knowledge of Representations of Subject Matter
- a teacher's understanding and expertise in the content area they are teaching.

2. Understanding of Students' Conceptions of the Subject and

the Learning
– includes recognition of what makes specific topics difficult to learn and
learn of the teaching strategies tailored to this specific teaching situation.
3. Curriculum Knowledge
– the purpose of the curriculum is to facilitate effective student learning. This
element reflects the national culture in which a school operates— different
countries have different expectations of their students, even if teaching
practices are similar.

4. Knowledge of Educational Contexts

- teachers need to understand the subject matter deeply and flexibly so
they can help students map their own ideas. this way, they will be able
to provide students plenty of opportunities to achieve learning
outcomes and develop the knowledge, skills, and understandings that
are essential to all areas of the curriculum.
5. Knowledge of the Purpose of Education
- Cochran et al. (1993) highlighted that Shulman's concept of PCK is
stagnant and divided into various components; they remarked that a
teacher's knowledge of teaching should be dynamic, developing, and
continuously growing. Therefore, the revised version that came to be
known as PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWING (PCKg), outlined a
few vital aspects of teacher education. It emphasized:

- Subject-matter knowledge
- Knowledge of pedagogy
- Knowledge of students
- Knowledge of environmental contexts