Lecture No.3
Lecture No.3
Lecture No.3
Two bodies are said to be at thermal equilibrium if they are at the same
temperature. This means there is no net exchange of thermal energy between the
two bodies. The top pair of objects are in contact, but since they are at different
temps, they are not in thermal equilibrium, and energy is flowing from the hot side
to the cold side.
26 °C 26 °C
The two purple objects are at the same temp and, therefore are in thermal
equilibrium. There is no net flow of heat energy here.
Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
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The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
We have already discussed the zeroth law, and
include it here for completeness:
If object A is in thermal equilibrium with object
C, and object B is separately in thermal
equilibrium with object C, then objects A and B
will be in thermal equilibrium if they are placed
in thermal contact.
Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling
points of water: the ice point and the steam point.
5
Pressure
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area
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Equation of state
An equation of state (EOS) is a thermodynamic expression
that relates pressure (P), temperature (T), and volume
(V). ... Many attempts have been made to describe the
thermodynamic behavior of fluids to predict their physical
properties at given conditions.
Boyle’s law & Charles law
Boyle's law
Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In
mathematical form, this can be stated as:
Charles's law
In 1787 Jacques Charles indicated a linear relationship between volume and
temperature:
Ideal gas law
where P is the absolute pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the
amount of substance of gas (measured in moles), T is the absolute temperature of
the gas and R is the ideal, or universal, gas constant.
In SI units, P is measured in Pascal, V is measured in cubic meters, n is measured
in moles, and T in Kelvin (273.15 Kelvin = 0 degrees Celsius). R has the value 8.314
J·K−1·mol−1 or 0.08206 L·atm·mol−1·K−1 if using pressure in standard atmospheres
(atm) instead of Pascal, and volume in liters instead of cubic meters .
Molar form
T2/T1 P2 = P 1 V2 = V1(T2/T1) T2 =
T1(T2/T1)
T2/T1 P2 = P1(T2/T1) V2 = V1 T2 =
T1(T2/T1)
dW pdV
Work
Work is the energy transferred
between a system and
environment when a net force acts
on the system over a distance.
Work is positive when the force is
in the direction of motion.
Work is negative when the force is
opposite to the
motion.
Heat
• The energy transferred in a thermal interaction is called heat.
• The symbol for heat is Q.
• The energy equation now becomes
ΔEsys = ΔEmech + ΔEth = Wext + Q
Quick quiz: A gas cylinder and piston are covered with heavy insulation. The piston is
pushed into the cylinder, compressing the gas. In the process. The gas temperature
• Increases
• Decreases
• Doesn’t change
Heat and Thermal interactions
Distinguish between Heat, Temperature, and Thermal
energy
Thermal energy is an energy of the system due to the motion of its
atoms and molecules. Thermal energy is a state variable, it may
change during a process. The system’s thermal energy continues to
exist even if the system is isolated and not interacting thermally with
its environment
Temperature and internal energy are related but not the same thing. Temperature is directly
proportional to the average molecular kinetic energy.
Consider a bucket of hot water and a swimming pool full of cold water. The hot water is
at a higher temperature, but the pool water actually has more internal energy! This is
because, even though the average kinetic energy of the water molecules in the bucket is
much greater than that of the pool, there are thousands of times more molecules in the
pool, so their total energy is greater.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is always conserved. It can change forms: kinetic, potential,
internal etc., but the total energy is a constant. Another way to say it is
that the change in thermal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the
work done on it and the amount of heat energy transferred to it.
PdV Work
Area A Let the Piston be moving from Thermodynamic
State 1 State 2
Pressure
Process Path
V2 P2
W1 2 PdV
V1
V1 Volume
V2
PdV Work
• Isobaric Process P=Const
Isobaric
State 1 State 2
V2
Pressure (P)
W1 2 PdV P (V2 V1 )
V1 W1-2
Volume (V) V2
V1
• An isobaric process is a constant pressure process. ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-zero, but calculating the work
done by an ideal gas is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
• Water boiling in a saucepan is an example of an isobar process
PdV Work
State 1
P1
V=Const
Pressure (P)
Isochoric
• Isochoric Process
V2
W1 2 PdV 0
V1
P2 State 2
Volume (V)
P1
State 1
W1 2 PdV
PV = C V1
Pressure
Quasi-Static
P1V1
PV P1V1 C P
V
State 2 V2
dV V2 P1
P2 W1 2 P1V1 P1V1 ln P1V1 ln
V1
V V1 P2
V1 Volume V2
An isothermal process is a constant temperature process. Any heat flow into or out of the system
must be slow enough to maintain thermal equilibrium
For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
Therefore, Q = W. Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as work (W)
PdV Work
n
n n PV
PV P1V1 P2V2
n
C P 1 n1
1 V
P1 PVn = C V2
W1 2 PdV
Pressure
V1
V2 V2
n dV V n 1
P1V1
n
W1 2 P V
n =∞ n =1 V1
Vn
1 1
n 1 V1
2
P2
n n 1 n n 1 n
PV 1 n 1 n P V X V2 P1V1 X V1
n =3 n =2 1 1 V2 V1 2 2
1 n 1 n
P1V1 P2
n 1 / n
Volume P1V1 P2V2
1
n 1 n 1 P1
DEFINITION :
m = 1 kg
∆T = 1 ºC The Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
Sp. Heat = 5 kJ/kg ºC mass of a substance by 1 degree.
5 kJ
The Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree, as the
Pressure is maintained CONSTANT.
The Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree, as the
Volume is maintained CONSTANT.
Specific heat
Specific heat at constant volume Cv