Modelling Power

System
Components
Introduction of Modern Power System

Modern electric power systems have three separate components -

Generation, Transmission and Distribution.

Electric power is generated at the power generating stations by

synchronous alternators that are usually driven either by steam or hydro
turbines. Most of the power generation takes place at generating
stations that may contain more than one such alternator-turbine
combination.

Many of these generating stations are remotely located. Hence the

electric power generated at any such station has to be transmitted over a
long distance to load centers that are usually cities or towns. This is
called the power transmission.
Section I: Series Parameters of Transmission Lines

- Line Resistance
- Inductance of a Straight Conductor
- Inductance of a Single-phase Line
- Inductance of Three-Phase Lines
- Composite Conductors

The transmission towers are usually made of steel and are solidly erected with a concrete base. The
three-phase conductors are supported by the towers through insulators. The conductors are usually made
of aluminum or its alloys. Aluminum is preferred over copper as an aluminum conductor is lighter in
weight and cheaper in cost than copper conductor of the same resistance.

The conductors are not straight wires but strands of wire twisted together to form a
single conductor to give it higher tensile strength. One of the most common conductors is
aluminum conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR).
 Line Resistance

It is very well known that the dc resistance of a wire is given by

where:
R = Resistance
ρ = resistivity of the wire in Ω - m
l = length in meter
A = cross sectional area in m2

Temperature also affects the resistivity of conductors. However the temperature rise in metallic
conductors is almost linear in the practical range of operation and is given by

where:
𝑅 2 𝑇 +𝑡 2 R1 = Initial resistance
= R2 = Final resistance
𝑅 1 𝑇 +𝑡 1 T = Inferred absolute Temperature (temperature when resistance of a given material is zero)
t1 = Initial temperature
t2 = Final temperature
Example:

A copper rod of 10 m long has a diameter with one inch. If the resistivity of a copper is
10.371 ohms circular-mil per foot, What is the resistance?

Solution:
L =10 m × = 32.81

d = 1 inch = 1000 mils

A = d2 = (1000)2 = 1,000,000CM

R = = = 3.4 × 10-4 ohm

 Inductance of a straight Conductor

The magnetic flux lines are concentric circles with their direction specified by Maxwell's
right hand thumb rule

The sinusoidal variation in the current produces a sinusoidal variation in the flux. The
relation between the inductance, flux linkage and the phasor current is

where:
λ L = inductance in Henry
𝐿= λ = flux linkage in Weber-turns
𝐼 I = phasor current in Ampere.
Example:

A solenoid has 900 turns. A current of 5 A in winding will produce a flux of

2,000,000 maxwell. Determine the Inductance of solenoid.

Solution:

( )
6
𝑁 ∅ ( 900)(2 ×10 )
𝐿= = × 10− 8
𝐼 5
L = 3.6 H
Inductance of a Single-phase Line

The Inductance of a transmission line depends on the arrangement of

conductors and their sizes
𝐿1 ﹦ 2× 10 −7 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑑
0 .7788 𝑟 1)
𝐿2 ﹦ 2× 10 −7 𝑙𝑛 (
0 . 7788𝑟 2 )
𝑑

If we assume r1’ = r2’ = r’, then the total inductance becomes

where
r’ = 0.7788r (Geometric Mean Radius)
H/m D = distance between conductor
L = Inductance of each conductor (Henry/meter)
Example:

Two No. 8 copper conductors are placed 15 cm apart with a GMR of 1.27 × 10 -3 m. If the
length of the line is 4 km, find the value of the inductance.

Solution:

7.36mH
Inductance of Transposed Three-Phase Lines

where
Dm Dm = Geometric Mean Distance (distance between conductor)
L=2× 10 −7 ln Ds = Self GDM or Geometric Mean Radius of conductors
Ds
L = Inductance of each conductor (Henry/meter)

Typical 3-phase conductor line arragement

Where:
D m=√3 ( D12 )( 𝐷23 )( 𝐷31 ) D12 = Distance between 1 and 2
D23 = Distance between 2 and 3
D31 = Distance between 3 and 1
Example:

A 5km long, three-phase 34.5 kV line has a horizontal configuration of 4 ft spacing. the conductor is
336.4 ACSR with GMR of 0/0244. What is the inductance of the line?

Solution:

5.03968 ft

mH
Composite Conductors

L1 = 2 ×10-7ln
Where:
Dm(12) = GMD between Conductors 1 and 2 (meter)
L2 = 2 ×10-7ln Ds(1) = self GMD between strands of conductor 1 (meter)
Ds(2) = self GMD between strands of conductor 2 (meter)
Ltotal = L1 + L2
 Example:
A single phase line consist of tweo conductors a and a ＇ in parallel forming one connection and conductors b and b ＇
forming return connection. The distance between a and a ＇ is 1 m and between a and b is 2 m. Determine the
total inductance of the line per km. The diameter of each conductor is 2.6 cm. Assume the arrangement is
symmetrical.

Solution:
dab = Ds(a) =

dab = 223.61 cm Ds(a) =

r = = 1.3 cm Ds(a) = 10.06 cm

Dm(ab) =

Dm(ab) =

Dm(ab) = 211.47 cm
 Example:
A single phase line consist of tweo conductors a and a ＇ in parallel forming one connection and conductors b and b ＇
forming return connection. The distance between a and a ＇ is 1 m and between a and b is 2 m. Determine the
total inductance of the line per km. The diameter of each conductor is 2.6 cm. Assume the arrangement is
symmetrical.

Solution:
La = 2

La = 609.103

La = 609

Lb = La , then Ltotal = 2L

Ltotal = 12.18×
Section II : Shunt Parameters Of Transmission Lines

 - Capacitance of a Straight Conductor

 - Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line
 - Capacitance of a Three-Phase Transposed Line
 - Effect of Earth on the Calculation of Capacitance

Capacitance in a transmission line results due to the potential difference between the
conductors. The conductors get charged in the same way as the parallel plates of a
capacitor. Capacitance between two parallel conductors depends on the size and the
spacing between the conductors.
 Capacitance of a Straight Conductor

The conductor has a radius of r and carries a charge of q coulombs. The capacitance C is the ratio of charge q
of the conductor to the impressed voltage, i.e.,

The charge on the conductor gives rise to an electric field with radial flux lines where the total electric flux
is equal to the charge on the conductor. By Gauss's law, the electric flux density at a cylinder of radius x
when the conductor has a length of 1 m is

C/m2
The electric filed intensity is defined as the ratio of electric flux density to the permittivity of the medium.
Therefore

V/m
Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line

• Line to line capacitance of a single-phase transmission line

CLL =

Where:
CLL = line to line capacitance (farad per meter)
• Ʃ0 = permittivity of medium (8.854 ×1012 Farad/meter)
If r1 = r2 = r
r1 = radius of the conductor 1
CLL = r2 = radius of the conductor 2
Cn = line to ground capacitance (Farad per meter)

• Line to line ground capacitance of a single-phase transmission line (equal to

twice the line to line capacitance)

Cn =
Example:

Calculate the line to line capacitance per km of a single-phase overhead line having copper
conductors at a distance of 100cm apart and diameter of 1.5 each.

Solution:
CLL =

CLL =

CLL = 5.68 × 10-12 ×

CLL = 5.68 × 10 -9 F per km

Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line
• Neglecting ground effect

Cn =
where:
Dm = mutual geometric distance(GMD)
Ds = Self GMD or (GMR)
• With ground effects

Hm =

Hs =

Cn =
Example:

A 115 kV line has a horizontal configuration with 9 ft spacing. The diameter of the 336.4
ACSR is 0.721 inch. If the length of the line is 20 km what is the total capacitance.

Solution:
Dm =
=
= 11.339 ft
r = = 0.3605 in ×
= 0.03004 ft

Cn = =

Cn = 9.373710 -12 × 20,000 m

Cn = 0.187
 Section III: Synchronous Machine Model

The schematic diagram of a synchronous generator is shown in Fig. 1.15. This contains three stator windings
that are spatially distributed. It is assumed that the windings are wye-connected. The winding currents are
denoted by ia , ib and ic. The rotor contains the field winding the current through which is
denoted by if. The field winding is aligned with the so-called direct ( d ) axis. We also define a quadrature
( q ) axis that leads the d -axis by 90°. The angle between the d-axis and the a-phase of the stator winding is
denoted by θd.

Fig. 1.15 Schematic diagram of a synchronous generator.

The flux linkage equations are then given by

For steady state operation we can assume

 Synchronous Speed
where:
θd0 = initial position of the field winding with respect
to the phase-a of the stator winding at time
t = Time
Ws = Speed

The mutual inductance of the field winding with all the three stator windings will vary as a
function of θd, i.e.,

Substitute:
Generator Terminal Voltage

Internal emf
 Hence (1.102) can be written as

The equivalent circuit, Let the current ia lag the internal emf ea by θa . The stator currents are then
Section IV: Transformer

Transformer - Static device by which electrical energy is being transferred from one alternating
current to another without a change in frequency.
Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer
A transfromer is ideal if its core is loss less, has no leakage flux and has no copper losses
in its windings.

E1 = 4.44N1fϕm
E2 = 4.44N2fϕm
ϕm = mA

Where:
E1 = voltage induced in the primary windings (volt)
E2 = voltage induced in the secondary windings (volt)
N1 = number of turns in the primary windings
N2 = number of turns in the secondary windings
f = Frequency of the supply voltage (Hertz)
ϕm = maximum or peak value of the core (weber)
m = maximum flux density (webers/sq.m)
A = cross sectional area of the core (sq.m)
Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer
A transfromer is ideal if its core is loss less, has no leakage flux and has no copper losses
in its windings.

If the maximum flux is given in unit maxwells

E1 = 4.44N1fϕm 10-8
E2 = 4.44N2fϕm10-8
ϕm = mA

Where:
E1 = voltage induced in the primary windings (volt)
E2 = voltage induced in the secondary windings (volt)
N1 = number of turns in the primary windings
N2 = number of turns in the secondary windings
f = Frequency of the supply voltage (Hertz)
ϕm = maximum or peak value of the core (weber)
m = maximum flux density (webers/sq.m)
A = cross sectional area of the core (sq.m)
Example:

The net cross Section of the core of a 60 cycle transformer is 20 square inches. The maximum flux
density in the core is 50,000 lines per square inch. If there are 900 turns in the primary and 90 turns in
the secondary, determine the rated voltage of the primary and secondary.
 Ideal transformer ratios

I1 N 2 1
= =
I2 N 1 a
Where:

( ) =a 2
2
Z1 𝑁1 N1/N2 = a = Turns ratio
=
Z2 𝑁2 E1/E2 = Voltage ratio
I1/I2 = Currents ratio
Z1/Z2 = Ohmic ratio
E1 N 1
= =a
E2 N 2
Example:

A single-phase transformer is rated 4,160 V primary and 250 V

secondary. If it has 1,500 turns in the primary, what should be
the number of turns in the secondary winding?
Section V: Balance Operation of a Three-Phase Circuit
Example:
Section VI: Per unit Represents
Example:
REPORTERS:

Acebedo, Charlit
Cordero, Creney
Isulan, Rose Angela
Pogoy, Arsent
Sugano, Merry Lyn
Tumampo, Maryrose
Yuson, May Anas