C++ Programming:
From Problem Analysis
to Program Design, Eighth Edition
Chapter 12: Pointers, Classes, Virtual
Functions, and Abstract Classes
Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Learn about the pointer data type and pointer
variables
• Explore how to declare and manipulate
pointer variables
• Learn about the address of operator and the
dereferencing operator
• Discover dynamic variables
2
Objectives (continued)
• Explore how to use the new and delete
operators to manipulate dynamic variables
• Learn about pointer arithmetic
• Discover dynamic arrays
• Become aware of the shallow and deep
copies of data
• Discover the peculiarities of classes with
pointer member variables
3
Objectives (continued)
• Learn about virtual functions
• Examine the relationship between the
address of operator and classes
• Become aware of abstract classes
4
Pointer Variables
• Pointer variable: content is a memory address
• Declaring Pointer Variables: Syntax
identifier
Examples:
int *p;
char *ch;
Pointer Variables (continued)
• These statements are equivalent
int *p; int* p; int * p;
• In the statement
int* p, q;
only p is the pointer variable, not q; here q is an int variable
• To avoid confusion, attach the character * to the variable name
int *p, q;
• The following statement declares both p and q to be pointer
variables of the type int.
int *p, *q;
Address of Operator (&)
• The ampersand, &, is called the address of
operator
• The address of operator is a unary operator
that returns the address of its operand
7
Dereferencing Operator (*)
• C++ uses * as the binary multiplication
operator and as a unary operator
• When used as a unary operator, *
− Called dereferencing operator or indirection
operator
− Refers to object to which its operand (that is, a
pointer) points
The following statement prints the value stored in the memory
space pointed to by p, which is the value of x.
It will print 25
The following statement stores 55 in the memory location
pointed to by p—that is, in x.
P 1300 1200 P 1300 1200
x 25 1300 x 55 1300
&p, p, and *p all have
different meanings.
• &p means the address
of p—that is, 1200
• p means the content
of p (1800).
• *p means the content
(24) of the memory
location (1800)
pointed to by p (that
is, pointed to by the
content of memory
location 1200).
Example 14-1
1750
50
38
&p= 1400 &p= 1400 &p= 1400 &p= 1400
P= ??? P= ??? P= 1750 P= 1750
*p= Undefined *p= Undefined *p= 50 *p= 38
&x= 1750 &x= 1750 &x= 1750 &x= 1750
X= ??? X= 50 X= 50 X= 38
More About Pointers
1. A declaration such as
int *p;
allocates memory for p only, not for *p.
2. Assume the following:
int *p;
int x; Then,
a. p is a pointer variable.
b. The content of p points only to a memory location of
type int.
c. Memory location x exists and is of type int. Therefore,
the assignment statement
p = &x;
is legal. After this assignment statement executes, *p is
valid and meaningful.
Classes, Structs, and Pointer
Variables
• You can declare pointers to other data types:
− student is an object of type studentType;
studentPtr is a pointer variable of type
studentType
13
Classes, Structs, and Pointer
Variables (continued)
• To store address of student in
studentPtr:
studentPtr = &student;
• To store 3.9 in component gpa of student:
(*studentPtr).gpa = 3.9;
− () used because dot operator has higher
precedence than dereferencing operator
− Alternative: use member access operator
arrow (->)
14
Classes, Structs, and Pointer
Variables (continued)
• The syntax for accessing a class (struct)
member using the operator -> is:
• Thus,
(*studentPtr).gpa = 3.9;
is equivalent to:
studentPtr->gpa = 3.9;
15
Initializing Pointer Variables
• C++ does not automatically initialize variables
• Pointer variables must be initialized if you do
not want them to point to anything
− Initialized using the constant value 0
• Called the null pointer
• Example: p = 0;
− Or, use NULL named constant: p = NULL;
− The number 0 is the only number that can be
directly assigned to a pointer variable
17
Dynamic Variables
• Dynamic variables: created during execution
• C++ creates dynamic variables using pointers
• Two operators, new and delete, to create
and destroy dynamic variables
− new and delete are reserved words
18
Operator new
• new has two forms:
− where intExp is any expression evaluating to
a positive integer
• new allocates memory (a variable) of the
designated type and returns a pointer to it
− The address of the allocated memory
• The allocated memory is uninitialized
19
Operator new (continued)
• The statement: p = &x;
− Stores address of x in p
• However, no new memory is allocated
• The statement: p = new int;
− Creates a variable during program execution
somewhere in memory, and stores the
address of the allocated memory in p
• To access allocated memory: *p
20
Think about pointer of characters???
Operator new (continued)
• new allocates memory space of a specific
type and returns the (starting) address of the
allocated memory space
• If new is unable to allocate the required
memory space, it throws bad_alloc
exception
− If this exception is not handled, it terminates
the program with an error message
23
Operator delete
24
Operator delete (continued)
Memory leak
25
Operator delete (continued)
• To avoid memory leak, when a dynamic variable is no
longer needed, destroy it-----Deallocate its memory
• delete is used to destroy dynamic variables
• Syntax:
• Tip: to avoid dangling pointers, set variable to NULL afterwards
P
1200 1300 12 1300
Now 1300 is available
to be used later on…
P
1200 1300 1300
P
1200 NULL
26
Operations on Pointer Variables
• Assignment: value of one pointer variable can
be assigned to another pointer of same type
• Relational operations: two pointer variables of
same type can be compared for equality, etc.
• Some limited arithmetic operations:
− Integer values can be added and subtracted
from a pointer variable
− Value of one pointer variable can be
subtracted from another pointer variable
28
Operations on Pointer Variables
(continued)
• Examples: p
int *p, *q;
q
p = q;
− In this case, p == q will evaluate to true,
and p != q will evaluate to false
int *p
double *q;
− In this case, q++; increments value of q by 8,
and p = p + 2; increments value of p by 8
29
Operations on Pointer Variables
(continued)
• Pointer arithmetic can be very dangerous
− The program can accidentally access the
memory locations of other variables and
change their content without warning
• Some systems might terminate the program with
an appropriate error message
• Always exercise extra care when doing
pointer arithmetic
30
Dynamic Arrays
• Dynamic array: array created during the
execution of a program p 1000
• Example: 1004
int *p;
p = new int[10];
1036
*p = 25; stores 25 into the first memory location
p++; //to point to next array component
*p = 35; stores 35 into the first memory location
31
p 1000
1004
1008
1036
Dynamic Arrays (continued)
• C++ allows us to use array notation to access
these memory locations
• The statements:
p[0] = 25;
p[1] = 35;
store 25 and 35 into the first and second array
components, respectively
33
Dynamic Arrays (continued)
• The value of list (1000) is constant
− Cannot be altered during program execution
− The increment and decrement operations
cannot be applied to list
• If p is a pointer variable of type int, then:
p = list;
copies the value of list, the base address of
the array, into p
− We can perform ++ and -- operations on p
• An array name is a constant pointer
35
Functions and Pointers
• A pointer variable can be passed as a
parameter either by value or by reference
• To make a pointer a reference parameter in a
function heading, use &:
void example(int* &p, double *q)
{
. . .
}
37
Pointers and Function Return
Values
• A function can return a value of type pointer:
int* testExp(...)
{
. . .
}
38
5 10 5
5 10 10
5 10 273185792
5 10
8 8
10 10 10
Dynamic Two-Dimensional Arrays
• You can create dynamic multidimensional
arrays
• Examples:
declares board to be an array of four
pointers wherein each pointer is of type int
creates the rows of board
declares board to be a pointer to a pointer
41
• This statement creates an array of 10 pointers of type int
and assign the address of that array to board.
• This for loop creates the columns of board.
• To access the components of board you can use the array
subscripting notation. 0 1 14
board ....
0
....
1
....
.
.
.
9 ....
Examples
P1 0012FF7C
P2 0012FF78
10
20 X 0012FF74
ptr2
ptr1
p1 p2 p3
x y z
3 10 5
4 20 0
5 0
0
Shallow versus Deep Copy and
Pointers
• Assume some data is stored in the array:
• If we execute:
45
Shallow versus Deep Copy and
Pointers (continued)
• Shallow copy: two or more pointers of the
same type point to the same memory
− They point to the same data
46
Shallow versus Deep Copy and
Pointers (continued)
• Deep copy: two or more pointers have their
own data
47
Classes and Pointers: Some
Peculiarities
There are three things to take
care when the class uses
pointer members:
1. Destructor to delete the
dynamic array
2. Overload the assignment
operator
3. Override the Copy constructor
48
Destructor
• If objectOne goes out of scope, the member
variables of objectOne are destroyed
− The memory space of the dynamic array
would stay marked as allocated, even though
it cannot be accessed
49
Destructor (continued)
• Solution:
− Put the necessary code in the destructor to
ensure that when objectOne goes out of
scope, the memory of the array is deallocated
50
Assignment Operator
51
Assignment Operator (continued)
• If objectTwo.p deallocates memory space to
which it points, objectOne.p becomes invalid
• Solution: extend definition of the assignment
operator to avoid shallow copying of data (Ch15)
52
Copy Constructor
(provided by the compiler).
• ClassName newObject (oldObject);
Means newObject = oldObject
Copy Constructor
• This initialization is called the default
member-wise initialization
− Initialization due to the constructor, called the
copy constructor (provided by the compiler)
54
Copy Constructor (continued)
• Default initialization leads to shallow copying
of data
• Similar problem occurs when passing objects
by value:
55
Copy Constructor (continued)
• Copy constructor automatically executes in
three situations:
− When an object is declared and initialized by
using the value of another object
− When, as a parameter, an object is passed by
value
− When the return value of a function is an
object
56
obj1
obj2
error
obj1 obj2
x 30
Copy Constructor (continued)
• Solution: properly define copy constructor
58
Copy Constructor (continued)
• For classes with pointer member variables,
three things are normally done:
− Include the destructor in the class
− Overload the assignment operator for the
class
− Include the copy constructor
59
Inheritance, Pointers, and Virtual
Functions
• You can pass an object of a derived class to
a formal parameter of the base class type
60
Inheritance, Pointers, and Virtual
Functions (continued)
• For both statements (Lines 6 and 7), member
function print of baseClass was executed
− Because the binding of print, in the body
of callPrint, occurred at compile time
• Compile-time binding: the necessary code to
call a specific function is generated by the
compiler
− Also known as static binding
63
Inheritance, Pointers, and Virtual
Functions (continued)
• How can we avoid this problem?
− Virtual functions (reserved word virtual)
• Virtual function: binding occurs at program
execution time, not at compile time
− This kind of binding is called run-time binding
• Run-time binding: compiler does not generate
code to call a specific function; it generates
information to enable run-time system to
generate specific code for the function call
− Also known as dynamic binding
64
Inheritance, Pointers, and Virtual
Functions (continued)
65
Classes and Virtual Destructors
• Classes with pointer member variables should
have the destructor
− Destructor can be designed to deallocate
storage for dynamic objects
• If a derived class object is passed to a formal
parameter of the base class type, destructor of
the base class executes
− Regardless of whether object is passed by
reference or by value
• Solution: use a virtual destructor (base class)
67
Virtual functions for class A:
fun2
Virtual functions for class B:
fun1 and fun2
Virtual functions for class C:
fun1 and fun2 and fun3
Classes and Virtual Destructors
(continued)
• The virtual destructor of a base class
automatically makes the destructor of a
derived class virtual
− After executing the destructor of the derived
class, the destructor of the base class
executes
• If a base class contains virtual functions,
make the destructor of the base class virtual
71
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual
Functions
• Through inheritance, we can derive new
classes without designing them from scratch
− Derived classes inherit existing members of
base class, can add their own members, and
also redefine or override public and protected
member functions
− Base class can contain functions that you
would want each derived class to implement
• Base class may contain functions that may not
have meaningful definitions in the base class
73
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual
Functions (continued)
• To make them pure virtual functions:
74
A
B C
Y Z
Virtual functions
Class A is Abstract class
Class B is non abstract class
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual
Functions (continued)
• Abstract class: contains one or more pure
virtual functions
You cannot create objects of an abstract class
77
Abstract Classes and Pure Virtual
Functions (continued)
• If we derive rectangle from shape, and
want to make it a nonabstract class:
− We must provide the definitions of the pure
virtual functions of its base class
• Note that an abstract class can contain
instance variables, constructors, and
functions that are not pure virtual
− The class must provide the definitions of
constructor/functions that are not pure virtual
78
Address of Operator and Classes
• & operator can create aliases to an object
• Consider the following statements:
int x;
int &y = x;
x and y refer to the same memory location
y is like a constant pointer variable
• y = 25; sets the value of y (and of x) to 25
• x = 2 * x + 30; updates the value of x
and hence of y
80
8 8 21
2 2 5
int fun(int &a) //error
int &fun(int a)
Output: 2 2 Garbage
4 4 4
Address of Operator and Classes
(continued)
• The address of operator
can also be used to return
the address of a private
member variable of a
class
− However, if you are not
careful, this operation
can result in serious
errors in the program
11
83
Summary
• Pointer variables contain the addresses of
other variables as their values
• Declare a pointer variable with an asterisk, *,
between the data type and the variable
• & is called the address of operator
− Returns the address of its operand
• Unary operator * is the dereferencing
operator
• Member access operator, ->, accesses the
object component pointed to by a pointer
84
Summary (continued)
• Dynamic variable: created during execution
− Created using new, deallocated using delete
• Shallow copy: two or more pointers of the
same type point to the same memory
• Deep copy: two or more pointers of the same
type have their own copies of the data
• Can pass an object of a derived class to a
formal parameter of the base class type
• Binding of virtual functions occurs at
execution time (dynamic or run-time binding)
85
