GENERAL

CHEMISTRY 1
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Fuat TOPUZ

Istanbul Technical University

Department of Chemistry

Week - 3
Highlighted ones will not be taught!
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The students should learn the nomenclature of compounds by themselves (course policy)!
The de Broglie wavelength of a particle indicates the length scale at which wave-
like properties are important for that particle
Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas
Molecular Compounds
 Formulas and Models
Chemical formulas are used to express the composition of molecules and
ionic compounds in terms of chemical symbols and present ratios of the
atoms.
A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the
smallest unit of a substance.
An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a
substance.

Molecular formula Empirical formula

H2O H2O
H2O2 HO
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2
If we know the molecular formula, we also know the empirical formula, but the
reverse is not true.
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Question

Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:

(a) biborane (B2H6), which is used in rocket propellants

(b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar

(c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic gas

(“laughing gas”) and as an aerosol propellant for whipped creams.
Exercise questions
Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:

a) Benzene C6H6 Ans: CH

b) Naphthalene C10H8 Ans: C5H4

c) Aspirin C9H8O4 Ans: C9H8O4

Ionic Compounds
• Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to form
charged species called ions.
• Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic compounds.

+ Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively charged ions called

cations.
− Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged ions
called anions.
Mole of a Compound

Mole : an amount of compound containing Avogadro’s number (6.022×1023) of formula

units or molecules
Molar mass : the mass of one mole of formula units or molecules
MgCl2 : 95 g mol-1
Mw = 62.1 g mol-1
Mole of an Element – A Second Look

Molecular forms of elemental sulfur and phosphorus

Composition of Chemical Compounds

Halothane C2HBrClF3
Mole ratio nC/nhalothane
Mass ratio mC/mhalothane

M(C2HBrClF3) = 2MC + MH + MBr + MCl + 3MF

= (2 x 12.01) + 1.01 + 79.90 + 35.45 + (3 x 19.00)
= 197.38 g/mol
Calculating Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula

1. Determine the molar mass of the compound

2. Determine the contribution of the given element to the
molar mass
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to
the mass of the compound as a whole
4. Multiply this ratio by 100% to obtain the mass percent of
the element
Oxidation States: A Useful tool in Describing chemical
Compounds
Metals Non-metals
tend to lose electrons tend to gain electrons

Na Na+ + e– Cl + e– Cl–

reducing agents oxidizing agents

We use the oxidation state to keep track of the number of electrons that have been
gained or lost by an element.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

•The convention is that the cation is written first in a formula, followed by the anion. For
example, in NaH, the H is H-; in HCl, the H is H+.
•The oxidation number of a free element is always 0. The atoms in He and N2, for example,
have oxidation numbers of 0.
•The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion. For example, the
oxidation number of Na+ is +1; the oxidation number of N3- is -3.
•The usual oxidation number of hydrogen is +1. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 in
compounds containing elements that are less ​electronegative than hydrogen, as in CaH2.

•The oxidation number of oxygen in compounds is usually -2. Exceptions include OF2 because

F is more electronegative than O, and BaO 2, due to the structure of the peroxide ion, which is
2-
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

• The oxidation number of a Group IA element in a compound is +1.

• The oxidation number of a Group IIA element in a compound is +2.
• The oxidation number of a Group VIIA element in a compound is -1,
except when that element is combined with one having a higher
electronegativity. The oxidation number of Cl is -1 in HCl, but the
oxidation number of Cl is +1 in HOCl.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral
compound is 0.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the
charge of the ion. For example, the sum of the oxidation numbers for
SO42- is -2.
Question

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

cures scurvy.

It is composed of 40.92
percent carbon (C), 4.58
percent hydrogen (H), and
54.50 percent oxygen (O)
by mass.

Determine its empirical

formula.
Exercise Question:

Teflon®, which is a nonstick and nonflammable plastic is produced from

tetrafluoro ethylene.

A 10 g sample of tetrafluoro ethylene contains 2.40 g C in its composition; the

rest is F. What is the empirical formula of tetrafluoro ethylene? Ans: CF2

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Exercise Question:
Polyvinyl chloride, mostly known as PVC, is the world's third-most widely produced
plastic polymer, It is used in production of pipes, hoses, plastic windows, doors,
electric cable insulation material, and even credit cards. Its main raw material is vinyl
chloride.

Vinyl chloride is composed of C, H and Cl. Mass percentages of C and H are 38.43%
and 4.84%, respectively. Determine the empirical formula of vinyl chloride. Ans: C H Cl
2 3

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Combustion Analysis
Apparatus for combustion analysis
Combust 11.5 g ethanol
Collect 22.0 g CO2 and 13.5 g H2O
Emripical formula of EtOH?
g CO2 mol CO2 mol C gC 6.0 g C = 0.5 mol C

g H2O mol H2O mol H gH 1.5 g H = 1.5 mol H

g of O = g of sample – (g of C + g of H) 4.0 g O = 0.25 mol O

Empirical formula C0.5H1.5O0.25

Divide by smallest subscript (0.25)
28 Empirical formula C2H6O
Exercise Question:
2015 Nobel Price in Chemistry went to three scientists. One of them is a Turkish scientist
Aziz Sancar. He won the Noble Price with his studies on “DNA repair”. DNA consists of
four building blocks with a particular order. One of these building blocks is adenine.

Adenine was found to have an empirical formula of CHN. On a separate experiment it

was found to have a molar mass of 135.1 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of
adenine? Ans: C H N

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Chemical Reactions
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one or more new
substances is a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a
chemical reaction:

reactants products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H 2 with O2 to form H2O

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Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations

As reactants are converted to products we observe:

Color change
Precipitate formation
Gas evolution
Heat absorption or evolution

Chemical evidence may be necessary.

 When aqueous solutions of
silver nitrate and potassium
chromate are mixed

Precipitation of silver chromate

When a copper penny When iron gauze (steel
reacts with nitric acid, wool) is ignited in an
the red-brown gas is oxygen atmosphere
evolved

Evidence of a chemical reaction

Chemical Reactions

Step 1: Write the reaction using chemical symbols.

Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.

An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the coefficients of

formulas.
Reaction Conditions - Balancing
Reaction conditions are often written above or below the arrow in
an equation.
Why Do We Add Coefficients Instead of Changing Subscripts to
Balance?

Hydrogen and oxygen can make water OR hydrogen

peroxide:
 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
 H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O2(l)
 Balancing Chemical Equations
1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left side and
the correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the right side of the
equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to

make the number of atoms of each element the same on both
sides of the equation. Do not change the subscripts.

2C2H6 NOT C4H12

 Balancing Chemical Equations cont’d
3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in only
one reactant and one product.

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon multiply CO2 by 2

on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + 39
O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
 Balancing Chemical Equations cont’d

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or more

reactants or products.
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by 7
2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

C2H6 + 7 O2 remove fraction

2CO2 + 3H2O
2 multiply both sides by 2
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
Three Types of Reactions

• Combination reactions

• Decomposition reactions

• Combustion reactions
Combination Reactions

In combination
reactions two or
more substances
react to form one
product.

Examples:
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2 MgO(s)
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
C3H6(g) + Br2(l) C3H6Br2(l)
Decomposition Reactions

In a decomposition
reaction one
substance breaks
down into two or more
substances.

Examples:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + O2(g)
2 NaN3(s) 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)
Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions
are generally rapid
reactions that produce
a flame.
Combustion reactions
most often involve oxygen
in the air as a reactant.

Examples:
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
Exercise Question:
During the night, carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with water to form glucose (C6H12O6)
and oxygen gas (O2) in the leaves of the plants. The produced glucose is used as
the source of energy for plants. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
Exercise Question:

The food we eat is degraded, or broken down,

in our bodies to provide energy for growth and
function. A general overall equation for this
very complex process represents the
degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):

If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person C6H12O6

over a certain period, what is the mass of CO2
produced?
1255 g
Exercise Question:
All alkali metals react with water to produce
hydrogen gas and the corresponding alkali
metal hydroxide.

A typical reaction is that between lithium and

water:

How many grams of Li are needed to produce Lithium reacting with water to
9.89 g of H2? produce hydrogen gas.

Li: 6.94 g/mol

Exercise Question:
The catalytic converter of a car converts toxic gases in the exhaust gas to less toxic gases. These
toxic gases are usually the products of incomplete combustion (burning) of petroleum in the
engines.

Carbon monoxide is one of these very toxic (poisonous) gases.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is converted to less toxic substance carbon dioxide (CO 2) in a catalytic
converter according to the chemical reaction:

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CO (g) + ½ O2 (g) ⟶ CO2 (g)

How many grams of carbon dioxide are produced from 100.0 g carbon monoxide?
(MCO2 = 44.01 g/mol, MCO = 28.01 g/mol)

Ans: a) 157.14 g
Exercise Question:
Another poisonous exhaust gas is NO3.

In a catalytic converter, NO3 is converted to nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) by the

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reaction:

2NO3 (g) ⟶ 3O2 (g) + N2 (g)

How many grams of NO3 is needed to produce 125.0 g O2?

(MNO3 = 62.0 g/mol, MO2 = 32.0 g/mol)

Ans: 161.4 g
Chemical Reactions in Solution

Close contact between atoms, ions and molecules necessary

for a reaction to occur.
If 0.440 mol of urea is dissolved in enough water to make 1.000 L of solution the concentration
is:
curea = 0.440 mol urea = 0.440 M CO(NH2)2
1.000 L
Solution Dilution
 Limiting Reagents:
(reagent = reactant)
Limiting Reagent: Reactant used up first in the reaction.
The maximum amount of product formed depends on how much of this reactant
was originally present.
When there is not enough of one reactant in a chemical reaction, the reactant
will be used up and reaction will stop.
To ensure maximum yield is obtained a large excess of one reactant is supplied.

Excess reagents: Reactants present in quantities greater than necessary to

react with the quantity of the limiting reagent.

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E.g. We have five hot dogs and four hot dog buns. How many complete hot dogs can
we make?

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In a chemical reaction, the limiting reagent is the reactant that determines how
much of the products are made.
The maximum amount of product that can be produced is called the theoretical
yield.
Question
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide:

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.

(a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?

(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
 P: 30.97 g/mol
F: 19 g/mol

99.18 g
83%
C10H20O