WTW 164
Unit 2.5: Integration by partial
fractions
Dr HR (Maya) Thackeray
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[email protected]>
Integrating rational functions
• A rational function of x is an expression of the form P(x)/Q(x) where P and Q
are
polynomials in x. For example, is a rational function of x.
• At first glance, finding the integral seems tricky. If we know that
the fraction is 2 + + , then the integral is easier:
+ + = 2x + 3 ln|x – 2| + 4 ln|x + 1| + C.
• We show a way to express any rational function as a polynomial plus
“partial”
fractions of the form plus “partial” fractions of the form .
These expressions can be integrated using techniques from previous lectures.
From a rational function to partial fractions
Suppose that we have a rational function P(x)/Q(x) of x, where the term of Q(x) with highest
power of x has coefficient 1.
To write P(x)/Q(x) in terms of partial fractions:
• Divide P by Q using long division: = (polynomial) + where deg R < deg Q.
(Here, deg P is the degree of P, that is, the highest power of x that appears in P. For
example, 2x5 – x3 + 7 has degree 5. If deg P < deg Q, then take R = P.)
• Write Q(x) as a product of expressions (ax + b)n and/or (ax2 + bx + c)n.
• Solve: R(x)/Q(x) = (sum of fractions), where the fractions are as follows.
For each (ax + b)n dividing Q, include A1/(ax + b) + A2/(ax + b)2 + … + An/(ax + b)n.
For each (ax2 + bx + c)n dividing Q, include
(B1x + C1)/(ax2 + bx + c) + (B2x + C2) /(ax2 + bx + c)2 + … + (Bnx + Cn)/(ax2 + bx + c)n.
Questions: Distinct linear factors (page 1)
• Find .
Solution. Long division yields = x + 5 + .
We have x2 – 9 = (x – 3)(x + 3), so we want = + .
Multiplying by x2 – 9 on both sides, we obtain 2 = A(x + 3) + B(x – 3).
Therefore, 2 = (A + B)x + (3A – 3B), so 0 = A + B and 2 = 3A – 3B.
Now B = –A, so 2 = 3A – 3(–A) = 6A, so A = 1/3 and B = –1/3.
(Alternatively: Start with 2 = A(x + 3) + B(x – 3). Substituting x = –3 yields 2 = –
6B, so
B = –1/3. Substituting x = 3 yields 2 = 6A, so A = 1/3.)
The integral is = + 5x + ln|x – 3| – ln|x + 3| + C.
Questions: Distinct linear factors (page 2)
• Find .
Solution. We have x3 – 2x2 – 3x = x(x2 – 2x – 3) = x(x + 1)(x – 3).
We want = + + . Multiplying by x3 – 2x2 – 3x, we
obtain x2 – 4x – 3 = A(x + 1)(x – 3) + Bx(x – 3) + Dx(x + 1).
Therefore, x2 – 4x – 3 = Ax2 – 2Ax – 3A + Bx2 – 3Bx + Dx2 + Dx
= (A + B + D)x2 + (–2A – 3B + D)x – 3A, and we have A + B + D = 1,
–2A – 3B + D = –4, and –3A = –3. We have A = 1, so B + D = 0 and
–3B + D = –2, so D = –B and –4B = –2, so B = 1/2 and D = –1/2.
The integral is = ln|x| + ln|x + 1| – ln|x – 3| + C.
Question: Repeated linear factors
• Find .
Solution. Substituting x = 2 into x3 – 3x – 2 gives the value 0; we find that x3 – 3x – 2
= (x – 2)(x2 + 2x + 1) = (x – 2)(x + 1)2. We want = + + .
Multiplying by x3 – 3x – 2 gives 3x2 – x – 1 = A(x – 2)(x + 1) + B(x – 2) + D(x + 1)2.
Therefore, 3x2 – x – 1 = (A + D)x2 + (–A + B + 2D)x + (–2A – 2B + D); we get A + D = 3,
–A + B + 2D = –1, and –2A – 2B + D = –1. Solve that system of linear equations; we get
A = 2, B = –1, and D = 1. (Alternatively: Start with 3x2 – x – 1 = A(x – 2)(x + 1) + B(x – 2) +
D(x + 1)2. Substitute x = 2 to get 9 = 9D, so D = 1. Substitute x = –1 to get 3 = –3B, so B = –
1.
Use one of the three linear equations from before to get A = 2.) The integral is
= = 2 ln|x + 1| + + ln|x – 2| + C.
Question: A quadratic factor (page 1)
• Find .
Solution. Substituting x = 1 into x3 + x2 + 3x – 5 gives 0; we obtain
x3 + x2 + 3x – 5 = (x – 1)(x2 + 2x + 5).
We want = + . Multiplying that equation
by x3 + x2 + 3x – 5 gives x2 + 6x + 9 = A(x2 + 2x + 5) + (Bx + D)(x – 1)
= (A + B)x2 + (2A – B + D)x + (5A – D), so we have A + B = 1,
2A – B + D = 6, and 5A – D = 9. Solving the system of linear equations,
we obtain A = 2, B = –1, and D = 1.
Question: A quadratic factor (page 2)
Therefore, = . We have that
x2 + 2x + 5 = (x + 1)2 + 4. Let x + 1 = 2 tan θ with θ in (–π/2,π/2); now dx
= 2 sec2θ dθ. The integral is 2 ln|x – 1| +
= 2 ln|x – 1| + = 2 ln|x – 1| + θ + ln|cos θ| + C
= 2 ln|x – 1| + arctan + ln|| + C (think of a right-angled triangle with leg
x + 1 opposite θ and leg 2 adjacent to θ).
Question: Two quadratic factors
• Find .
Solution. We want = + . This yields
x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 4 = (Ax + B)(x2 – 4x + 8) + (Dx + E)(x2 + 4)
= (A + D)x3 + (–4A + B + E)x2 + (8A – 4B + 4D)x + (8B + 4E), so
A + D = 1, –4A + B + E = –3, 8A – 4B + 4D = 6, and 8B + 4E = –4.
Solving that system gives A = 1/2, B = 0, D = 1/2, and E = –1. Letting u =
x2 + 4
and w = x2 – 4x + 8, we see that the integral is
= + = ln|u| + ln|w| + C = ln|x2 + 4| + ln|x2 – 4x + 8| + C.
Question: A repeated quadratic factor
• Find .
Solution. The usual argument puts = + + ; we
would solve a system of five linear equations in A, B, D, E, and F. Fortunately, we
have x4 + 2x2 + x + 2 = (x4 + 2x2 + 1) + (x + 1) = (x2 + 1)2 + (x + 1), so letting x = tan θ
with θ in (–π/2,π/2), we see that the integral is
= + = ln|x + 1| +
= ln|x + 1| + = ln|x + 1| +
= ln|x + 1| + θ + sin θ cos θ + C = ln|x + 1| + arctan x + + C
(think of a right-angled triangle with leg x opposite θ and leg 1 adjacent to θ).
