WTW 164

Final revision
Dr HR (Maya) Thackeray
<[email protected]>
Linear algebra: Linear equations and matrices
• Systems of linear equations:
No solution / unique solution / infinitely many solutions.
To solve Ax = b, write the augmented matrix [A | b], do Gaussian
elimination, then do either back substitution or Gauss-Jordan
elimination.
• Matrices: Can add, subtract, and (“row by column”) multiply.
We do not always have AB = BA.
We do not always have “if AB = AC and A is not O then B = C”.
Linear algebra: Inverses
• Inverses: For an invertible square matrix A, the inverse A–1 satisfies
A–1A = AA–1 = I. To find the inverse / show that it does not exist:
Write the augmented matrix [A | I] and do Gauss-Jordan elimination.
If we get [I | B], then A–1 = B; otherwise, A is not invertible.
if ad – bc is not 0.
Linear algebra: Determinants
• Determinants:
det = = ad – bc.
To find det A for square A, expand along a row/column using cofactors,
or use elementary row/column operations.
If A is invertible then det A–1 = 1/(det A).
Cramer’s rule: For A invertible, Ax = b has the unique solution
xj = (det Aj)/(det A)
where Aj is obtained from A by replacing column j with b.
Linear algebra: Unique Solution Theorem
• Unique Solution Theorem: For square A:
(Ax = b has unique solution for all b)
if and only if (A row equivalent to upper-triangular matrix with all
diagonal entries nonzero)
if and only if (x = 0 is only solution of Ax = 0)
if and only if (A invertible)
if and only if (det A is not 0).
Integration
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus part 1: = f(x).
• = f(x) + C.
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus part 2: = F(b) – F(a) where F’ = f.
• Net Change Theorem: = f(b) – f(a) = = .
• Substitution (chain rule in reverse), letting u = g(x):
=; =.
• Integration by parts (product rule in reverse):
= f(x)g(x) – ; = uv – ;
= –.
Trigonometric substitutions
• : x = a sin θ, θ in [–π/2, π/2].
• : x = a tan θ, θ in (–π/2, π/2).
• : x = a sec θ, θ in [0, π/2) U [π, 3π/2).
Partial fractions
For (P(x)/Q(x)) dx with polynomials P, Q where deg P < deg Q (if deg P is
at least deg Q then do long division first):
• Factorize Q.
• For each (ax + b)n, write A1/(ax + b) + A2/(ax + b)2 + … + An/(ax + b)n.
• For each (ax2 + bx + c)n, write (B1x + C1)/(ax2 + bx + c)
+ (B2x + C2) /(ax2 + bx + c)2 + … + (Bnx + Cn)/(ax2 + bx + c)n.
• Solve for the Ak, Bk, and Ck values, then integrate.
Improper integrals
Type 1 improper integrals:
=, =,
and = + .
Type 2 improper integrals (f discontinuous at c):
=, =,
and for c in (a,b): = + .
Each integral is convergent (and is said to converge) if all the associated limits exist,
and is divergent (and is said to diverge) otherwise.
“p-test”: is 1/(p – 1) if p > 1, and is divergent otherwise;
is 1/(1 – p) if p < 1, and is divergent otherwise.
Comparison test
0 g(x) f(x) for x a; f and g continuous on [a,).
• If is convergent, then so is .
• If is divergent, then so is .
Analogous versions of the comparison test hold for other types of
improper integrals.
Length, area, volume
• Area between y = f(x) and y = g(x), x in [a,b]: .
• Area between x = f(y) and x = g(y), y in [c,d]: .
Volume of a solid of revolution:
• if rotating y = f(x), x in [a,b] about the x axis, and
• if rotating x = g(y), y in [c,d] about the y axis.
Arc length of curve C: , where ds “= ” = dx = dy.
Area of surface of revolution of curve C:
• if rotating C about the x axis, and
• if rotating C about the y axis.
Complex numbers
i2 = –1, z = a + bi = Re(z) + i Im(z), = a – bi, |z| = .
z = r cis θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ). (We define ea + ib = ea cis b for real a and b.)
Principal/Main argument: θ in (-π, π].
(r1 cis θ1)(r2 cis θ2) = r1r2 cis(θ1 + θ2).
(r1 cis θ1)/(r2 cis θ2) = (r1/r2) cis(θ1 – θ2).
De Moivre’s theorem (for positive integers n): (r cis θ)n = rn cis nθ.
De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots: The nth roots of r cis θ are
r1/n cis((θ + 2kπ)/n), k in {0,1,…,n – 1}.
Polynomials
A polynomial anxn + … + a1x + a0 is over or over if all the coefficients ak are in or in respectively.
Remainder Theorem: f(x) divided by x – c gives remainder f(c).
Factor Theorem: x – c divides f(x) if and only if f(c) = 0.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Every nonconstant polynomial over has a root in .
Corollary: Every nonconstant polynomial over of degree n, with n at least 1, is the product of n
linear factors over .
Corollary: Every nonconstant polynomial over of degree n, with n at least 1, has exactly n roots
in counting multiplicity.
Theorem: Every nonconstant polynomial over is the product of linear and/or irreducible
quadratic factors over .
(For real a, b, and c with a not 0: ax2 + bx + c is irreducible over if and only if b2 – 4ac < 0.)
Conjugate Roots Theorem: For a polynomial f(x) over , if z in is a root of f(x) then so is .
Calculus with parametric curves
x = f(t), y = g(t)
dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt) if dx/dt is not 0 (since dy/dx.dx/dt = dy/dt by
the Chain Rule);
dx/dy = (dx/dt)/(dy/dt) if dy/dt is not 0 (similarly, swapping x and y).
Horizontal tangent if dy/dx = 0, that is, dx/dt is not 0 but dy/dt = 0.
Vertical tangent if dx/dy = 0, that is, dx/dt = 0 but dy/dt is not 0.
d2y/dx2 = d(dy/dx)/dx = .
Concave up (“shape of a smile”) if d2y/dx2 > 0;
concave down (“shape of a frown”) if d2y/dx2 < 0.
Length and area for parametric curves
For curve C given by x = f(t), y = g(t), t in [α, β]:
• Arc length is ds = .
• Area of surface of revolution is
o if rotating C about the x axis, and
o if rotating C about the y axis.
Polar co-ordinates
(r, θ) ~ (r, θ + 2pi) and (–r, θ) ~ (r, θ + pi)
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
r2 = x2 + y2
If r is not 0, then (cos θ = x/r and sin θ = y/r)
Tangent lines in polar co-ordinates
θ is the parameter: r = f(θ).
• dy/dx = = if dx/dθ is not 0 at the point.
• dx/dy = = if dy/dθ is not 0 at the point.
Horizontal tangent line if dx/dθ is not 0 but dy/dθ = 0.
Vertical tangent line if dx/dθ = 0 but dy/dθ is not 0.
Tangent at the pole r = 0 as θ θ0+ (respectively, as θ θ0–):
dy/dx = tan θ0 if defined, and dx/dy = cot θ0 if defined,
under the assumption that r is not 0 for θ in some nonempty open
interval (θ0, θ1) (respectively, (θ1, θ0)).
Derivatives of vector functions (page 1)
The derivative of r is defined as the vector function r’ such that
r’(t) = dr/dt := .
The vector r’(t) is the tangent vector to the curve traced out by r at the
point P with position vector r(t).
If r’(t) is not 0, then the unit tangent vector is T(t) = r’(t) and the
tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P parallel to r’(t).
Derivatives of vector functions (page 2)
If r(t) = , then
r’(t) =
and
=.
If R is an antiderivative of r (that is, R’ = r), then
= = R(b) – R(a),
and we have the indefinite integral
= R(t) + C
where C is a constant vector.
Functions of two variables (page 1)
z = f(x,y)
To sketch a surface, look at its intersections with planes x = c, y = c, z =
c. The curves f(x,y) = c in are the level curves of f.
The partial derivative of f at (x,y) = (a,b)
• with respect to x is = fx(a,b) = , and
• with respect to y is = fy(a,b) = .
Functions of two variables (page 2)
There are higher partial derivatives fxy = (fx)y = = , etc.
To find partial derivatives, differentiate with respect to one variable
while treating the other variable as a constant.
Let C1 (respectively, C2) be the intersection of the surface z = f(x,y) with
the plane y = b (respectively, with the plane x = a).
At (a,b,f(a,b)), the slope of the tangent to C1 is fx(a,b),
and the slope of the tangent to C2 is fy(a,b).
The plane through both tangents is the tangent plane at (a,b,f(a,b)),
with equation z – f(a,b) = fx(a,b).(x – a) + fy(a,b).(y – b).