Mobile Computing & Wireless

Communication (2170710)

Prof. M Dhanalakshmi,
Asst. Prof.,
IT Dept,
SCET, Surat.
CHAPTER – 2
Cellular Wireless Networks

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 1

 Topics
 Principles of Cellular Networks
 First – Generation Analog
 Second-Generation TDMA
 Second-Generation CDMA
 Third-Generation Systems

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 2

 Topics
 Principles of Cellular Networks
◦ Cellular Network Organization
◦ Shape of Cells
◦ Frequency Reuse
◦ Cluster Size
◦ Increasing Capacity
◦ Example of Mobile Cellular Call
◦ Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
◦ Handoff

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 3

 Principles of Cellular Networks
 Cellular technology is the foundation of mobile wireless
communications
 It supports users in locations that are not easily served by wired
networks.
 Cellular technology is the underlying technology for mobile
telephones, personal communications systems, wireless Internet and
wireless Web applications,
 The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace
high power transmitter/receiver systems with low power transmitter/
receiver.
 Use lower-power systems with shorter radius and to use numerous
transmitters/receivers.
Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 4
 Cellular Network Organization
 Use of multiple low-power transmitters, on the order of
100W or less.
 An area can be divided into cells.
 Each one served by its own antenna.
 Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served
by a base station (BS), consisting of transmitter, receiver,
and control unit.
 Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 5

 Shape of Cells

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 6

 Shape of Cells
 Square:
 A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to define.
 This geometry is not ideal.
 If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbours at
a distance d and four neighbors at a distance
 As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's boundaries,
it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are equidistant.
 This simplifies the task of determining when to switch the user to
an adjacent antenna and which antenna to choose.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 7

 Shape of Cells
 Hexagon:
 A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas.
 The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of the circle
that circumscribes it.
 The distance from the center to each vertex; also equal to the
length of a side of a hexagon.
 For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and
each adjacent cell center is

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 8

 Shape of Cells
 Hexagon:
 Precise hexagonal pattern is not used.
 Variations from the ideal are due to
◦ Topographical limitations,
◦ Local signal propagation conditions,
◦ Practical limitation on siting antennas.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 9

 Frequency Reuse
 In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver.
 The transmission power is carefully controlled to allow
communication within the cell using a given frequency band
while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes the cell
into adjacent cells.
 It is not practical to attempt to use the same frequency band in
two adjacent cells.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 10

 Frequency Reuse
 Objective is to use the same frequency band in multiple cells at
some distance from one another.
 This allows the same frequency band to be used for multiple
simultaneous conversations in different cells.
 Key design issue is to determine the minimum separation
between two cells using the same frequency band, so that the
two cells do not interfere with each other.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 11

 Frequency Reuse
 Benefits of Frequency Reuse:
 Allows communication within cell on a given frequency.
 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells.
 Allows reuse of frequency in nearby cells.
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 12

 Frequency Reuse
 Example:
 If the pattern consists of N cells and each cell is assigned the
same number of frequencies.
 K is the total number of frequencies allotted to the system.
 Each cell can have K/N frequencies.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 13

 Characterizing Frequency Reuse

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 14

 Cluster Size

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 15

 Cluster Size
 How to find cluster size of cellular network?
 Formula:

 N: No. of cell with unique/non repeated frequency.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 16

 Cluster Size
 Find cluster size of cellular network?
 Formula:

 To find the distance to reach from cell1 to another cell2:

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 17

 Cluster Size
 Possible values of N are 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19,21,..

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 18

 Increasing Capacity

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 19

 Increasing Capacity
 As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of
channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to
support the required number of users.
 So, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more
channels per unit coverage area.
 Techniques used to expand the capacity of cellular systems:
 1. Adding new channels 2. Cell Splitting
 3. Sectoring 4. Coverage Zone Approaches
 5. Frequency Borrowing

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 20

 Increasing Capacity
 1. Adding New Channels: When a system is set up in a region,
not all of the channels are used, and growth and expansion can
be managed by adding new channels.
 2. Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent
cells by congested cells and frequencies can also be assigned to
cells dynamically.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 21

 Increasing Capacity
 3. Cell Splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into
smaller cells.
 The original cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size.
 The smaller cells can themselves be split; however, l.5-km cells
are close to the practical minimum size.
 To use a smaller cell, the power level used must be reduced to
keep the signal within the cell.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 22

 Increasing Capacity
 3. Cell Splitting: The mobile units move, they pass from cell to
cell, which requires transferring of the call from one base
transceiver to another.
 This process is called a handoff.
 As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become much more
frequent.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 23

 Increasing Capacity
 4. Cell Sectoring: a cell is divided into a number of wedge
shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically 3 or
6 sectors per cell.
 Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell's channels,
and directional antennas at the base station are used to focus on
each sector.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 24

 Increasing Capacity

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 25

 Increasing Capacity
 5. Microcells:
 As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall
buildings or hills, to the tops of small buildings or the sides of
large buildings.
 Each decrease in cell size is accompanied by a reduction in the
radiated power levels from the base stations and the mobile
units.
 Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas,along
highways, and inside large public buildings.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 26

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 27

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 Each Base Station (BS) is connected to a MTSO (Mobile
Telecommunication Switching Office)
 MTSO is connected with PTSN (Public Telecommunications
Switching Network).
 MTSO:
 MTSO connects calls between mobile units and from mobile to
fixed telecommunications network.
 Assigns voice channels, performs handoffs, monitors calls for
billing.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 28

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit
and the base station (BS):
 Control channels
 Traffic channels.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 29

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 Steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area
controlled by a single MTSO are:
 Mobile Unit Initialization
 Mobile Originated Call
 Paging
 Call Accepted
 Ongoing Call
 Handoff

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 30

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 1. Mobile Unit Initialization:
 When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the
strongest setup control channel.
 The mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna of
the cell within which it will operate.
 Handshake takes place between the mobile unit and the
MTSO, through the BS to identify user and register location.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 31

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 1. Mobile Unit Initialization:
 As long as the mobile unit is on, this scanning procedure is
repeated periodically to account for the motion of the unit.
 If the unit enters a new cell, then a new BS is selected.
 The mobile unit keeps on monitoring for pages

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 32

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 2. Mobile Originated Call:
 The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup
channel is idle by examining information in the forward (from
the BS) channel.
 When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the
corresponding reverse (to BS) channel.
 The BS sends the request to the MTSO.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 33

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 3. Paging:
 The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the
called unit.
 The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending
on the called mobile unit number.
 Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup
channel.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 34

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 4. Call Accepted:
 The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup
channel.
 Responds to that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO.
 The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs.
 The MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each BS's
cell and notifies each BS.
 BSs notify mobile unit of channel.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 35

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 5. Ongoing Call:
 While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units
exchange voice or data signals, going through their respective
BSs and the MTSO.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 36

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 6. Handoff:
 Mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the range
of another during a connection.
 The traffic channel has to change to one assigned to the BS in
the new cell.
 The system makes this change without either interrupting the
call or alerting the user.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 37

 Example of Mobile Cellular Call
 6. Handoff:

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 38

 Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions
 Call Blocking:
 During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels
assigned to the nearest BS are busy,
◦ The mobile unit makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts.

 After a certain number of failed tries, a busy tone is returned to

the user.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 39

 Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions
 Call Termination:
 When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed and
the traffic channels at the two BSs are released.
 Call Drop:
 During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots.
 If the BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength for
a certain period of time.
 The traffic channel to the user is dropped and the MTSO is
informed.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 40

 Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions
 Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber:
 MTSO connects to the public switched telephone network.
 The MTSO can set up a connection between a mobile user in
its area and a fixed subscriber via the telephone network.
 The MTSO can connect to a remote MTSO via the telephone
network or via dedicated lines
 Set up a connection between a mobile user in its area and a
remote mobile user.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 41

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 42

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Mobile radio communication introduces complexities that are
not found in wire communication or in fixed wireless
communication.
 Two general areas of concern are
 Signal strength
 Signal propagation effects.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 43

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Signal strength
 Strength of the signal between the base station and the mobile
unit must be strong enough to maintain signal quality at the
receiver.
 Not so strong as to create too much cochannel interference
with channels in another cell using the same frequency band.
 Human-made noise varies considerably, resulting in a variable
noise level.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 44

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Signal strength:
 Automobile ignition noise in the cellular frequency range is
greater in the city than in a suburban area.
 Signal sources vary from place to place.
 The signal strength varies as a function of distance from the
BS to a point within its cell.
 Moreover, the signal strength varies dynamically as the mobile
unit moves.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 45

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Fading:
 In wireless communication fading occurs due to following
reasons:
 Time variation of received signal
 Caused by changes in transmission paths.
 Atmospheric Conditions.
 Movement of (Mobile Unit) antenna.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 46

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Multipath Effect:
 Signal travelling from source may take multiple path to reach
destination.
 The signal received at receiver end is sum of all multipath
signals.
 It may lead to phase difference due to comparatively longer
and shorter path of traversal in multipath effect.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 47

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Types of fading:
 Fast Fading:
 Rapid changes in strength over distances about half
wavelength.
 Slow Fading:
 Slower changes due to user passing different height buildings ,
gaps in buildings.
 Over long distances than fast fading.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 48

 Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Types of fading:
 Flat Fading:
 Non Selective.
 Affects all frequencies in same proportion.
 Selective Fading:
 Different frequency components affected differently.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 49

 Handoff

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 50

 Handoff
 Handoff is the procedure for changing the assignment of a
mobile unit from one BS to another as the mobile unit moves
from one cell to another.
 1. Handoff may be network initiated, in which the decision is
made solely by the network measurements of received signals
from the mobile unit.
 2. Mobile unit assisted handoff : Enable the mobile unit to
participate in the handoff decision by providing feedback to the
network concerning signals received at the mobile unit.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 51

 Handoff
 Different performance metrics may be used to make the
decision:
 Cell blocking probability: The probability of a new call being
blocked, due to heavy load on the BS traffic capacity.
 In this case, the mobile unit is handed off to a neighboring cell
based not on signal quality but on traffic capacity.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 52

 Handoff
 Different performance metrics may be used to make the
decision:
 Call dropping probability: The probability that, due to a
handoff, a call is terminated.
 Call completion probability: The probability that an admitted
call is not dropped before it terminates.
 Probability of unsuccessful handoff: The probability that a
handoff is executed while the reception conditions are
inadequate.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 53

 Handoff
 Different performance metrics may be used to make the
decision:
 Handoff blocking probability: The probability that a handoff
cannot be successfully completed.
 Handoff probability: The probability that a handoff occurs
before call termination.
 Rate of handoff: The number of handoffs per unit time.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 54

 Handoff
 Different performance metrics may be used to make the
decision:
 Interruption duration: The duration of time during a handoff
in which a mobile unit is not connected to either base station.
 Handoff delay: The distance the mobile unit moves from the
point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it
does occur.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 55

 First Generation Analog

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 56

 Topics
 First Generation Analog:
◦ Call Sequence
◦ Features
◦ Limitations

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 57

 First Generation Analog
 Refers to 1G – first generation of wireless cellular technology mobile
telecommunications.
 Uses analog radio signals.
 Provides basic voice service.
 Nippon Telegraph and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo started the first commercial
analog cellular system in December 1979.
 Transmission speed was very low ( 1- 2 Kbps).
 Each phone contained 32- bit serial number. 10 digit phone number in its PROM.
 Basic idea behind 1G cellular network was that the geographical area is divided
among cells. Each cell served by Base Station.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 58

 First Generation Analog – Call Sequence
 1. Subscriber initiates call by keying in number and presses
call.
 2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks user
authorized to place the call.
 3. MTSO issues message to user’s phone indicating traffic
channels to use.
 4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party.
◦ Steps from 2 to 4 occur within 10 sec of initiating call.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 59

 First Generation Analog – Call Sequence
 5. When called party answers , MTSO establishes circuit and
initiates billing information.
 6. When one party hangs up MTSO releases circuit, frees radio
channels and completes billing information.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 60

 First Generation Analog Features
 Channel Bandwidth : 30 kHz
 Data Transmission Rate : 1 -2 kbps
 No. of control channel : 42
 No. of voice channel : 790
 Cell Radius: 2 – 20 km
 Modulation – Voice Channel : Frequency Modulation
 Modulation – Control Channel : FSK
 Circuit Switching

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 61

 First Generation Analog Limitations
 Limited Capacity : 1 -2 kbps
 Lack of privacy : No encryption schemes
 Poor sound quality
 No room for spectrum growth
 Unreliable handoff
 No internet support

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 62

 Second Generation TDMA

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 63

 Second Generation

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 64

 FDMA, TDMA, CDMA

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 65

 FDMA, TDMA, CDMA

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 66

 Second Generation TDMA
 It is a digital cellular telephone communication technology.
 It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without
interference.
 TDMA technology divides a signal into various timeslots, and
increases the data carrying capacity.
 TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems.
 The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency
for the exclusive use of a time interval.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 67

 Second Generation TDMA -
Advantages
 Flexible rates: Several slots can be assigned to a user eg: each time interval
translates 32kbps , a user is assigned two 64Kbps slots per frame).
 Can withstand with variable bit rate traffic.
 Number of slots allocated to a user can be changed frame by frame eg: 2
slots in frame 1, 3 slots in frame 2, 1 slot in frame 3.
 No guardband required for the wideband system.
 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 68

 Second Generation TDMA -
DisAdvantages
 High data rates of broadband systems require complex
equalization.
 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to
inaccuracies due to clock instability.
 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy
consumption.
 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within
short slots.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 69

 Second Generation CDMA
 In CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
 Many codes occupy the same channel, but only those users
associated with a particular code can communicate.
 Every channel uses the full spectrum.
 Each conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital
sequence and then transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 Provides better voice quality and data communication.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 70

 Second Generation CDMA
 Digital Traffic channels:
◦ Support digital data.
◦ Voice traffic digitized.
◦ User traffic converted to analog for transmission.

 Simple to encrypt digital traffic.

 Error detection and correction.
 More capacity than TDMA.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 71

 Second Generation CDMA Advantages
 Does not require any synchronization.
 Has high spectral capacity, thus many number of users can share
in the same bandwidth.
 CDMA channel is not easily decodable.
 Dropouts occur only when the phone is atleast twice as far from
the base station.
 High voice quality as well as signal quality.
 Flexible allocation of resources.
 Operate at very low power level.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 72

 Second Generation CDMA DisAdvantages
 Does not provide international roaming capabilities like GSM.
 Information related to CDMA is stored in phone memory
rather than SIM memory like in GSM, so tedious to upgrade
mobile unit.
 Limited handset, because at present the major mobile
companies use GSM technology.
 Performance degrades with increase number of users.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 73

 Second Generation 2G
 Features:
 Emits comparatively less radio power.
 Maximum power drawn by mobile unit is 20Watts.
 Encryption facility.
 Error detection & correction.
 Internet facility provided.
 Limitations:
 Difficult to handle complex data such as Video.
 Higher signal strength is required to make device work.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 74

 Third Generation 3G

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 75

 Third Generation Systems – 3G
 Introduced in the year – 2000
 Used Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) technology.
 Support circuit & packet switching.
 Objective is to provide fairly wide speed wireless
coomunications to support Multimedia data, Video, voice, Web
browsing, TV Streaming, Video Conferencing, Navigation,
Email.
 More coverage with low investment.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 76

 Third Generation Systems – 3G
 Features:
 Technology Used: WCDMA / CDMA
 Bandwidth: 5 -10 Mbps.
 Frequency Bands: 15-25 GHz.
 Uses circuit & packet switching.
 Higher Security.
 Limitations:
 Cost of mobile unit is higher.
 Cost of 3G license services is higher.

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 77

 GSM Vs CDMA

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 78

 GSM VS CDMA

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 79

 Comparison of Mobile Generations

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 80

 Comparison of Mobile Generations

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 81

 Reference TextBook
 Wireless Communications & Networks, Second
Edition,William Stallings by Pearson

Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 82