Title of the Course: COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

Course Code:18EC35
Semester: 3rd ,B.E
Department: Electronics and Communication
Name and designation of the faculty:Mangala S Jolad,Asst Prof

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 MODULE 2
Machine instructions and
programs

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ADDRESSING MODES
The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an
instruction are referred to as Addressing Modes

IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIABLE AND CONSTANTS

Variable is represented by allocating a memory-location to hold its value.
Thus, the value can be changed as needed using appropriate instructions.
There are 2 accessing modes to access the variables:
Register Mode
Absolute Mode

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Register Mode
The operand is the contents of a register.
The name (or address) of the register is given in the instruction.
Registers are used as temporary storage locations where the data in a register
are accessed. For example, the instruction
Move R1, R2 ;Copy content of register R1 into register R2.

Absolute (Direct) Mode

The operand is in a memory-location.
The address of memory-location is given explicitly in the instruction.
The absolute mode can represent global variables in the program.
For example, the instruction
Move LOC, R2 ;Copy content of memory-location LOC into register R2.
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Immediate Mode
The operand is given explicitly in the instruction.
For example, the instruction
Move #200, R0 ;Place the value 200 in register R0.
Clearly, the immediate mode is only used to specify the value of a source-
operand.

Indirect Mode
Instruction does not give the operand or its address explicitly.
Instead, the instruction provides information from which the new address of
the operand can be determined.
This address is called Effective Address (EA) of the operand.

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Indirect Mode contd…
The EA of the operand is the contents of a register(or memory-location).
The register (or memory-location) that contains the address of an operand is
called a Pointer.
We denote the indirection by
→ name of the register or
→ new address given in the instruction.
E.g: Add (R1),R0 ;The operand is in memory. Register R1 gives the effective-
address (B) of the operand. The data is read from location B and added to
contents of register R0.

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Indirect Mode contd…
E.g: Add (R1),R0 ;The operand is in memory. Register R1 gives
the effective-address (B) of the operand. The data is read from
location B and added to contents of register R0.

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To execute the Add instruction in fig(a)

The processor uses the value which is in

register R1, as the EA of the operand.

It requests a read operation from the

memory to read the contents of location B.

The value read is the desired operand,

which the processor adds to the contents
of register R0.

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Indirect addressing through a memory-
location is also possible as shown in fig (b).

 In this case, the processor first reads the

contents of memory-location A.

Then requests a second read operation

using the value B as an address to obtain
the operand.

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Program Explanation
Register R2 is used as a pointer to the numbers in the list, and the operands are accessed
indirectly through R2.
The initialization-section of the program loads the counter-value n from memory-location N into
R1
uses the immediate addressing-mode to place the address value NUM1, which is the address of
the first number in the list, into R2.
Then it clears R0 to 0.
The first two instructions in the loop implement the unspecified instruction block starting at
LOOP.
The first time through the loop, the instruction Add (R2), R0 fetches the operand at location
NUM1 and adds it to R0.
The second Add instruction adds 4 to the contents of the pointer R2, so that it will contain the
address value NUM2 when the above instruction is executed in the second pass through the loop. 10
INDEXING AND ARRAYS
A different kind of flexibility for accessing operands is useful in dealing with
lists and arrays.

Index mode
The operation is indicated as X(Ri)
where X=the constant value contained in the instruction .
Ri=the name of the index register.
The effective-address of the operand is given by EA=X+[Ri]
The contents of the index-register are not changed in the process of
generating the effective- address.
The constant X may be given either
→ as an explicit number or
→ as a symbolic-name representing a numerical value.
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In fig(a), the index register, R1, contains the address of a memory-location.
Value X defines an offset(also called a displacement) from this address to the
location where the operand is found.
To find EA of operand: Eg: Add 20(R1), R2
EA=>1000+20=1020
Here, in fig(b)(An alternative use) the constant X corresponds to a memory
address.
The contents of the index register define the offset to the operand.
In either case, the effective-address is the sum of two values; one is given
explicitly in the instruction, and the other is stored in a register. 12
In fig(a), the index register, R1, contains the address of a memory-location.
Value X defines an offset(also called a displacement) from this address to the
location where the operand is found.
To find EA of operand: Eg: Add 20(R1), R2
 EA=>1000+20=1020
Here, in fig(b)(An alternative use) the constant X corresponds to a memory
address.
The contents of the index register define the offset to the operand.
In either case, the effective-address is the sum of two values; one is given
explicitly in the instruction, and the other is stored in a register. 13
 Base with Index Mode
Another version of the Index mode uses 2 registers which can be denoted as
(Ri, Rj)
Here, a second register may be used to contain the offset X.
The second register is usually called the base register.
The effective-address of the operand is given by EA=[Ri]+[Rj]
This form of indexed addressing provides more flexibility in accessing
operands because both components of the effective-address can be changed.

Base with Index & Offset Mode

Another version of the Index mode uses 2 registers plus a constant, which
can be denoted as X(Ri, Rj)
The effective-address of the operand is given by EA=X+[Ri]+[Rj]
This added flexibility is useful in accessing multiple components inside each
item in a record, where the beginning of an item is specified by the (Ri, Rj)
part of the addressing-mode.
In other words, this mode implements a 3-dimensional array.

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RELATIVE MODE

This is similar to index-mode with one difference, the effective-address is

determined using the PC in place of the general purpose register Ri.

The operation is indicated as X(PC).

X(PC) denotes an effective-address of the operand which is X locations above

or below the current contents of PC.

Since the addressed-location is identified "relative" to the PC, the name

Relative mode is associated with this type of addressing.

This mode is used commonly in conditional branch instructions.

An instruction such as

Branch > 0 LOOP ;Causes program execution to go to
the branch target location identified by name LOOP if branch condition is
satisfied. 15
 ADDITIONAL ADDRESSING MODES
Auto Increment Mode
 Effective-address of operand is contents of a register specified in the instruction.
 After accessing the operand, the contents of this register are automatically
incremented to point to the next item in a list.
 Implicitly, the increment amount is 1.
 This mode is denoted as
(Ri)+ ;where Ri=pointer-register.
Auto Decrement Mode
 The contents of a register specified in the instruction are first automatically
decremented and are then used as the effective-address of the operand.
 This mode is denoted as
-(Ri) ;where Ri=pointer-register.
 These 2 modes can be used together to implement an important data structure
called a stack. 16
 ADDITIONAL ADDRESSING MODES
Auto Increment Mode
 Effective-address of operand is contents of a register specified in the instruction.
 After accessing the operand, the contents of this register are automatically
incremented to point to the next item in a list.
 Implicitly, the increment amount is 1.
 This mode is denoted as
(Ri)+ ;where Ri=pointer-register.

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ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
We generally use symbolic-names to write a program.
A complete set of symbolic-names and rules for their use constitute an Assembly
Language.
The set of rules for using the mnemonics in the specification of complete instructions
and programs is called the Syntax of the language.
Programs written in an assembly language can be automatically translated into a
sequence of machine instructions by a program called an Assembler.
The user program in its original alphanumeric text format is called a Source Program,
and the assembled machine language program is called an Object Program.
For example: MOVE R0,SUM ;The term MOVE represents OPCODE for operation
performed by instruction.
ADD #5,R3 ;Adds number 5 to contents of register R3 & puts the result
back into registerR3.
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ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES
Directives are the assembler commands to the assembler concerning the program
being assembled.
These commands are not translated into machine OPCODE in the object-program.
EQU informs the assembler about the value of an identifier.
Ex: SUM EQU 200 ;Informs assembler that the name SUM should be replaced
by the value 200.
ORIGIN tells the assembler about the starting-address of memory-area to place the
data block.
Ex: ORIGIN 204 ;Instructs assembler to initiate data-block at memory-
locations starting from 204.
DATAWORD directive tells the assembler to load a value into the location.
Ex: N DATAWORD 100 ;Informs the assembler to load data 100 into the
memory-location N(204).
RESERVE directive is used to reserve a block of memory.
Ex: NUM1 RESERVE 400 ;declares a memory-block of 400 bytes is to be
reserved for data.
END directive tells the assembler that this is the end of the source-program text.
RETURN directive identifies the point at which execution of the program should be
terminated. 19
Any statement that makes instructions or data being placed in a memory-location may
be given a
label. The label(say N or NUM1) is assigned a value equal to the address of that
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GENERAL FORMAT OF A STATEMENT
Most assembly languages require statements in a source program to be written in the
form:
Label Operation Operands Comment
Label is an optional name associated with the memory-address where the machine
language instruction produced from the statement will be loaded.

Operation Field contains the OP-code mnemonic of the desired instruction or

assembler.

Operand Field contains addressing information for accessing one or more operands,
depending on the type of instruction.

Comment Field is used for documentation purposes to make program easier to

understand.

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ASSEMBLY AND EXECUTION OF PROGRAMS

Programs written in an assembly language are automatically translated into a sequence

of machine instructions by the Assembler.

Assembler Program
→ replaces all symbols denoting operations & addressing-modes with binary-codes
used in machine instructions.
→ replaces all names and labels with their actual values.
→ assigns addresses to instructions & data blocks, starting at address given in ORIGIN
directive
→ inserts constants that may be given in DATAWORD directives.
→ reserves memory-space as requested by RESERVE directives.

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Two Pass Assembler has 2 passes:
First Pass: Work out all the addresses of labels.
As the assembler scans through a source-program, it keeps track of all
names of numerical- values that correspond to them in a symbol-table.
Second Pass: Generate machine code, substituting values for the labels.
When a name appears a second time in the source-program, it is replaced
with its value from the table.
The assembler stores the object-program on a magnetic-disk. The object-
program must be loaded into the memory of the computer before it is
executed. For this, a Loader Program is used.

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Debugger Program is used to help the user find the programming errors.
Debugger program enables the user
→ to stop execution of the object-program at some points of interest &
→ to examine the contents of various processor-registers and memory-
location.

Number notation is a more convenient to specify the different number

patterns.
Decimal numbers prefixed with ‘# ‘ eg: ADD #93,R1
Binary numbers prefixed with ‘#% ‘ eg: ADD #%01011101,R1
Hexadecimal numbers prefixed with ‘#$‘ eg: ADD #$5D,R1
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 BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS
Consider a task that reads in character input from a keyboard and produces character
output on a display screen.

This simple way of performing such (I/O) tasks is known as program controlled I/O

The rate of output transfers from the computer to the display device is several
thousand characters per second.

The keyboard and the display are separate devices as shown.

For the action of typing character and displaying it on the screen

One block of instructions in the I/O program transfers the character into the
processor.

Another block of instructions in the I/O program causes the character to be displayed.

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 BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS
Consider the problem of moving a character-code from the keyboard to the processor
as in below fig. For this transfer, buffer-register DATAIN & a status control flags(SIN)
are used.

SIN and SOUT- status flags

When a key is pressed, the corresponding ASCII code is stored in a DATAIN register
associated with the keyboard.
SIN=1 , When a character is typed in the keyboard. This informs the processor that
a valid character is in DATAIN.
SIN=0 , When the character is transferred to the processor.
An analogous process takes place when characters are transferred from the processor
to the display. For this transfer, buffer-register DATAOUT & a status control flag SOUT
are used.
SOUT=1 , When the display is ready to receive a character.
SOUT=0 , When the character is being transferred to DATAOUT.
The buffer registers DATAIN and DATAOUT and the status flags SIN and SOUT are part of
circuitry commonly known as a device interface. 26
BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS contd..
1. READWAIT Branch to READWAIT if SIN=0
Input from DATAIN to R1
Processor monitors the status flag by executing a short wait loop and proceeds to
transfer the input data when SIN set to 1

2. WRITEWAIT Branch to WRITEWAIT if SOUT=0

Output from R1 DATAOUT
The output operation transfers a character from R1 to DATAOUT to be displayed, and it
clears SOUT to 0
3. MoveByte DATAIN,R1

4. MoveByte R1, DATAOUT

5. READWAIT Testbit #3,INSTATUS

Branch=0 READWAIT
MoveByte DATAIN,R1

6. WRITEWAIT Testbit #3,INSTATUS

Branch=0 WRITEWAIT
MoveByte R1 ,DATAOUT 27
BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS contd..

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STACKS AND QUEUES

STACKS
A stack is a special type of data structure
where elements are inserted from one end and
elements are deleted from the same end.
 This end is called the top of the stack as
shown
The various operations performed on stack:
Insert: An element is inserted from top end.
Insertion operation is called push operation.
Delete: An element is deleted from top end.
Deletion operation is called pop operation.
A processor-register is used to keep track of
the address of the element of the stack that is
at the top at any given time.
 This register is called the Stack Pointer (SP).

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STACKS AND QUEUES

STACKS
If we assume a byte-addressable memory with a
32-bit word length,
The push operation can be implemented as
Subtract #4, SP
Move NEWITEM, (SP)
The pop operation can be implemented as
Move (SP), ITEM
Add #4, SP

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STACKS AND QUEUES contd…

QUEUE
Data are stored in and retrieved from a queue on a FIFO basis.
Difference between stack and queue?
One end of the stack is fixed while the other end rises and falls as
data are pushed and popped.
In stack, a single pointer is needed to keep track of top of the stack
at any given time.
In queue, two pointers are needed to keep track of both the front
and end for removal and insertion respectively.
Without further control, a queue would continuously move through
the memory of a computer in the direction of higher addresses.
One way to limit the queue to a fixed region in memory is to use a
circular buffer.

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STACKS AND QUEUES

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SUBROUTINES

A subtask consisting of a set of instructions which is

executed many times is called a Subroutine.
A Call instruction causes a branch to the subroutine
At the end of the subroutine, a return instruction is
executed
Program resumes execution at the instruction
immediately following the subroutine call
The way in which a computer makes it possible to
call and return from subroutines is referred to as its
Subroutine Linkage method.
The simplest subroutine linkage method is to save
the return-address in a specific location, which may
be a register dedicated to this function. Such a
register is called the Link Register.
When the subroutine completes its task, the Return
instruction returns to the calling-program by
branching indirectly through the link-register.

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SUBROUTINES

The Call Instruction is a special branch instruction that performs the following
operations:
→ Store the contents of PC into link-register.
→ Branch to the target-address specified by the instruction.
The Return Instruction is a special branch instruction that performs the operation:
→ Branch to the address contained in the link-register.

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SUBROUTINE NESTING AND THE PROCESSOR STACK
Calling one subroutine in another subroutine is called subroutine nesting.

→ The return address of the second call is also stored in the link register,
destroying its previous contents.

→ It is essential to save the contents of the link register in some other

location before calling another subroutine.

→ Subroutine nesting can be carried out to any depth.

→ The last subroutine called completes its computations and returns to the
subroutine that called it.

→ The return address needed for this first return is the last one generated in
the nested call sequence.

→ The return addresses are generated and used in a last-in-first-out order. 35

SUBROUTINE NESTING AND THE PROCESSOR STACK
PARAMETER PASSING:

→ When calling a subroutine, a program must provide to the subroutine the

parameters.

→ that is, the operands or their addresses, to be used in the computation.

→ Later, the subroutine returns other parameters, in this case, the results of
the computation.

→ This exchange of information between a calling program and a subroutine

is referred to as parameter passing.

→ The parameters may be placed in registers or in memory locations.

→ The return addresses are generated and used in a last-in-first-out order.

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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS

Certain simple operations can usually be accomplished in a number of different ways.

eg. ADD #1,R1;
INC R1;
Alternative ways may be more efficient than others.

LOGIC INSTRUCTIONS

Logic operations such as AND, OR, and NOT applied to individual bits.

These are the basic building blocks of digital-circuits.

This is also useful to be able to perform logic operations is software, which is done
using instructions that apply these operations to all bits of a word or byte
independently and in parallel.
eg. Not dst

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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS CONTD…

SHIFT AND ROTATE INSTRUCTIONS

There are many applications that require the bits of an operand to be shifted right or
left some specified number of bit positions.
The details of how the shifts are performed depend on whether the operand is a
signed number or some more general binary-coded information.
For general operands, we use a logical shift.
For a number, we use an arithmetic shift, which preserves the sign of the number.

LOGICAL SHIFTS
Two logical shift instructions are
Shifting left (LShiftL) &
Shifting right (LShiftR).
These instructions shift an operand over a number of bit positions specified in a count
operand contained in the instruction.
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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS CONTD…

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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS CONTD…

ROTATE OPERATIONS
In shift operations, the bits shifted out of the operand are lost, except for the last bit
shifted out which is retained in the Carry-flag C.
To preserve all bits, a set of rotate instructions can be used.
They move the bits that are shifted out of one end of the operand back into the other
end.
Two versions of both the left and right rotate instructions are usually provided. In one
version, the bits of the operand is simply rotated.
In the other version, the rotation includes the C flag.

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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS CONTD…

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ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS CONTD…

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The machine instruction format for multiplication and division are same as Add
instruction.
Multiply Ri,Rj; Rj <- [Ri] X [Rj]
The product of two n-bit numbers can be large as 2n bits ,
lower byte result stores in Rj
higher byte result stores in R(j+1).

For division Divide Ri,Rj; Rj <- [Rj] / [Ri]

quotient is stored in Rj
remainder is stored in R(j+1)

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