Chapter 2

Displaying Descriptive Statistics

CHAPTER 2 MAP
2.1 The Role Technology Plays in Statistics

2.2 Displaying Quantitative Data

2.3 Displaying Qualitative Data

2.4 Contingency Tables

2.5 Stem and Leaf Display

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 Discrete vs. Continuous Data
Discrete data are values based on observations
that can be counted and are typically
represented by whole numbers.
• Represent something that has been counted
• Take on whole numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3

Continuous data are values that can take on any

real numbers, including numbers that contain
decimal points.
• Usually measured rather than counted
• Examples are weight, time, and distance.
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 Constructing a Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution shows the number of

data observations that fall into specific
intervals.
• Graphically summarize information not readily
observable by merely looking at data in a table

• A class is a category (row) in a frequency

distribution.

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 Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Example: Number of iPads sold per day

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 Relative Frequency Distributions
Relative frequency distributions display the
proportion of observations of each class relative
to the total number of observations.
• Shows the fraction of observations in each class
• Found by dividing each frequency by the total
number of observations
• The fractions in a relative frequency distribution add
up to 1.00.

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 Relative Frequency Distributions
Example:

Two iPads were sold on 28% of the days.

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 Cumulative Relative
Frequency Distributions

A cumulative relative frequency distribution

totals the proportion of observations that are
less than or equal to the class at which you are
looking.
• Shows the accumulated proportion as values vary
from low to high

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 Cumulative Relative Frequency
Distributions
Example:

Three iPads or less were sold on 80% of the business days.

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 Histograms in Excel
8. Customize the Excel graph to make it more attractive.

9. Stretch size to better proportion

10. Eliminate “more” bin
11. Modify the graph and axis labels
12. Remove the redundant “Frequency” legend

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 Constructing a Frequency Distribution Using
Grouped Quantitative Data

Ideally, the number of classes in a frequency

distribution should be between 4 and 20.
• Some data sets, particularly those with continuous
data, require several values to be grouped together
in a single class.
• This grouping prevents having too many classes in
the frequency distribution, which can make it
difficult to detect patterns.

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 Number of Classes
One method to determine the number of classes in
a frequency distribution is the rule
2k ≥ n
where k = Number of classes
n = Number of data points
• Find the lowest value of k that satisfies the rule.
Suppose n = 50
25 = 32 < 50 (k = 5 is too small.)
26 = 64 > 50 (k = 6 is a good choice.)
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 Class Width
Once k is known, the width of each class can be
found.
• The width is the range of numbers to put into each
class.

• Round this estimate to a useful whole number that

makes the frequency distribution more readable.

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 Class Width

There is no one correct answer for the class width.

• The goal is to create a histogram to clearly and usefully
show the pattern in the data.
• Often there is more than one acceptable way to
accomplish this.

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 Class Boundaries
Class boundaries represent the minimum and
maximum values for each class.
• Choose class boundaries that are easy to read.

☺🗹 ☹🗷
3 to less than 6 minutes 3.21 to less than 6.21 minutes
6 to less than 9 minutes vs. 6.21 to less than 9.21 minutes
9 to less than 12 minutes 9.21 to less than 12.21 minutes

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 Class Frequencies
Find class frequencies by counting and recording
the number of observations in each class.
• This is easier when the data are sorted.
Example:

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 Rules for Classes for Grouped Data

1. Equal-size classes. All classes in the frequency

distribution must be of equal width.
2. Mutually exclusive classes. Class boundaries cannot
overlap.
3. Include all data values. Make sure all data values are
accounted for in the total row of the frequency distribution.
4. Avoid empty classes. It is undesirable for a histogram
to display a class so narrow that there are no observations in it.
5. Avoid open-ended classes (if possible). These
violate the first rule of equal class sizes.

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 Constructing a Histogram with
Grouped Quantitative Data
For grouped data, the bins in Excel are the
upper boundary for each class.
For continuous data, remove the gaps
between the bars in the histogram:
1. Right-click on any histogram bar to get a pop-
up menu.
2. Left-click on Format Data Series.
3. In the dialog box, move the Gap Width slide all
the way to the left.
4. Close the Format Data Series dialog box.

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 Pie Charts
Pie charts are another excellent tool for
comparing proportions for categorical data.
Each segment of the pie represents the relative
frequency of one category.
• All categories in the data set must be included in
the pie.
• Use a pie chart to compare the relative sizes of all
possible categories.
• Bar charts are more useful when you want to
highlight the actual data values and when the
classes combined don’t form a whole.

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 2.5 Stem and Leaf Display

A stem and leaf display splits the data values

into stems (the larger place values) and leaves
(the smaller place value).
By listing all of the leaves to the right of each
stem, we can graphically describe how the data
are distributed.
• All the original data points are visible on the display
• Easy to construct by hand
• Provides a histogram-like view of the distribution

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 Stem and Leaf Display
For this example, use the 10’s digit as the stem
Use the 1’s digit as the leaf

7|8
8|0

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 Stem and Leaf Display
1. Sort the data from lowest to highest.
2. Determine the unique stem values.
7, 8, 9 are the different stem values in this example.
3. List the stems in a vertical column and then add the leaf
values to the right of the appropriate stem, in ascending
order.

7|8 8 9 9 9
8|0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 6 7 8
9|0 2 5
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