ECE 3430 – Introduction to Microcomputer Systems

University of Colorado at Colorado Springs

Lecture #18
Agenda Today:

1) Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A conversion)

2) Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D conversion)

Lecture #18 ECE 3430 – Intro to Microcomputer Systems 1

Fall 2014
 Analog Signals vs. Digital Signals

• Despite what you hear in the media, we don’t live in a digital

world!
• Electricity by its nature is analog!
• Analog electrical signals have a continuous voltage and current
range.
• When analog signals are restricted to one of a series of discrete
voltages, we can map each of these voltage levels to one of n
numbers. When we do this, we call it digital.
• Numbers are made up of digits—hence why it is called digital.
• Today, almost all digital systems operate on two discrete voltage
levels. This maps nicely into a binary domain. Because of this,
people will use the terms binary and digital interchangeably
although they don’t technically have to mean the same thing.

Lecture #18 ECE 3430 – Intro to Microcomputer Systems 2

Fall 2014
 Analog Signals vs. Digital Signals

• Different logic families (TTL, CMOS, ECL, et cetera) map

different voltages to logic 0 and logic 1:
– TTL: 0V = logic 0, +?V = logic 1
– CMOS: 0V = logic 0, +?V = logic 1
– ECL: -?V = logic 0, 0V = logic 1

• When negative logic is employed, the voltages that normally

correspond to logic 0 and logic 1 are reversed!
• On our breadboard in the lab, we treat +3.3V as a logic 1 and
0V as a logic 0.
• Acronyms:
TTL = Transistor-to-Transistor Logic
CMOS = Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic
ECL = Emitter-Coupled Logic

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of mapping a

number to an analog voltage.
• A single binary digit (bit) maps to one of two discrete voltages.
• A series of binary digits (bits) maps to series of discrete
voltages (resolution/precision):
– An n-bit binary number can map to 2n voltage levels.
– An 8-bit binary number can map to 256 voltage levels.
• A device that takes a series of bits and outputs a voltage is
called a digital-to-analog converter, D/A converter, or DAC.
• These binary digits can be fed to the D/A converter as a serial
bit stream or as a set of parallel inputs.
• There are many ways to design D/A converters. The design of
the D/A converter determines what range of analog voltages
you will get for a set of digital inputs…

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• Assume an 8-bit D/A converter is designed to output an analog

voltage between 0 and +5V:

0 = 00000000 -> 0V Voltage is proportional

to number magnitude.
63 = 00111111 -> +1.25V
127 = 01111111 -> +2.5V Dividing number by two
255 = 11111111 -> +5V will divide the output voltage
in half.

• Basic equation: Vout = Din/(2n - 1) * Vmax

• The output of a D/A converter can be shifted or amplified using
additional analog circuitry.

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• Simple example of a serial, pulse-width modulated (PWM) D/A

converter:

• This D/A converter is simply a low-pass filter with rolloff frequency

defined as follows:
frolloff = 1/(2*π*R*C)

where: R = resistor value (Ohms)

C = capacitor value (Farads)

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Fall 2014
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• The low-pass (RC) filter will be driven with a serial stream of bits
(voltage fluctuations between 0V and Vcc/Vdd).
• A low-pass filter will pass frequencies below the rolloff
frequency and attenuate frequencies above the rolloff
frequency.
• Rolloff frequency is also sometimes called cutoff or turnover
frequency.
• To use this kind of serial D/A converter, we must use digital
electronics to convert a binary number into a periodic square
wave.
• If we drive the bits at the filter at a rate much lower than the
rolloff frequency, we would expect to see a square wave at the
output of the D/A converter (clearly not what we want).
• If we drive the bits at the filter at a rate much higher than the
rolloff frequency, we would expect to see no oscillation on the
output (high frequency is being filtered—what we want).
Lecture #18 ECE 3430 – Intro to Microcomputer Systems 7
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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• However, the RC filter has a DC offset (due to charge

accumulated on the capacitor). When a non-zero voltage is
applied to the top terminal of the capacitor, it slowly starts
charging to match that voltage.
• When a zero voltage is applied to the top terminal of the
capacitor, the capacitor starts discharging.
• The voltage at the output of the D/A converter is simply the
average voltage presented at Vin.
• The average voltage of a square wave is proportional to the
duty cycle.

So, does the frequency matter at all?

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Fall 2014
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• The frequency must simply stay much greater that the rolloff
frequency. We just vary the duty cycle of the input waveform to
control the analog output:

0% duty cycle -> 0V

25% duty cycle -> +1.25V
50% duty cycle -> +2.5V
100% duty cycle -> +5V

How would you recommend we generate a waveform with fixed

frequency and variable duty cycle in the MSP430?

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• We could use output compare to generate a square wave with a

programmable duty cycle and fixed frequency.

A parallel D/A converter: Vref

Parallel Digital Input

(n-bit input)
D/A Analog Output

• Each combination of bits yields a discrete voltage output…

– Examples: R-2R Ladder DAC
• Vref defines the maximum analog output (mapping to all 1’s).

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Fall 2014
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

R-2R ladder:

• Works well if all resistors (values of R) are “exactly the same”.

• Each input is GND or Vcc/Vdd.
• Current division (KCL) principles at play here.
• Vout is proportional to the binary number provided on a(0)-a(n-1).
• “Instantaneous” conversion time.

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 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (D/A)

• 00000000 -> 0V
00000001 -> ~0.02V
00000010 -> ~0.04V
11111111 -> +5V

Granularity in the output voltages. What if we needed 0.03V?

– Use smaller voltage reference (assign smaller voltage to
11111111).
– Use more bits.
• With this kind of parallel D/A converter, we don’t need to create a
periodic waveform.

For the serial, PWM D/A, why not use a large capacitor to establish a low
rolloff frequency so we don’t have to generate such a high-
frequency square wave?

Lecture #18 ECE 3430 – Intro to Microcomputer Systems 12

Fall 2014
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

• Analog-to-digital conversion is the process of mapping an

arbitrary voltage to one of n discrete numbers.
• As with D/A converters, A/D converters are designed to work
with a specific number of bits (resolution/precision).
• An n-bit A/D converter will map a voltage to one of 2n numbers.
• A device that accepts an analog voltage and produces a
corresponding number to represent that voltage is called an
analog-to-digital converter, A/D converter, or ADC.
• The binary output of an A/D converter can be handed to another
device in parallel or as a serial bit stream.
• As with D/A converters, there are many ways to design A/D
converters.
• A/D converters use a reference voltage to define what voltage
will yield the maximum binary output…

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Fall 2014
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

• An 8-bit A/D converter with +5V tolerant inputs and a voltage

reference set to +5V will produce output as follows:

0V -> 0 = 00000000 Number magnitude is

proportional to input voltage.
+1.25V -> 63 = 00111111
+2.5V -> 127 = 01111111 Dividing voltage in half will
+5V -> 255 = 11111111 yield a binary output half as big.

• If the reference voltage were changed to +2.5V, then the digital

output for +2.5V would be 11111111.
• Some A/D converters have differential inputs (the input voltage
is the difference between two input pins).
• Some A/D converters have differential voltage references (to
establish both a high and low voltage reference).

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Fall 2014
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

• Basic equation (for single input, single voltage reference):

Dout = Vin/Vref * (2n - 1)
• Basic equation (for differential input, single voltage reference):
Dout = (V+in - V-in)/Vref * (2n - 1)

• Applied voltages to an A/D converter can be scaled and shifted

using additional analog circuitry to meet the requirements of the
A/D converter.
• A/D converters suffer from a phenomenon known as
quantization error. A specific voltage will be “rounded” to the
nearest whole number. This means that the digital output is not
entirely accurate for all voltage inputs.

What can be done to reduce quantization error?

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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

So how does an analog-to-digital

converter work?

• One very common technique

for doing analog-to-digital
conversion is called the
successive approximation
method.
• This method involves the use
of an analog comparator, a
D/A converter, control logic,
and storage for a digital
approximation (SAR):

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Fall 2014
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

• The successive approximation method executes sequentially (it

takes a clock cycle for each bit in the final result). An 8-bit A/D
would take 8 cycles to calculate the 8-bit result.

• The approximation register is first cleared, then the most-

significant bit is calculated first…then the others:
– Guess bit to be 1.
– Provide current value in approximation register to D/A converter.
– Analog comparator compares D/A output with externally provided analog
input.
– Control logic clears the bit that it set if D/A output is larger than externally
provided input (the initial guess was wrong).

• Repeat above steps for all the other bits.

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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

• MSP430 ADC10 and ADC12 module use successive

approximation.
• More specifically, the MSP430 ADC10/12 modules use a
switched-capacitor DAC scheme instead of an older R-2R DAC
approach.
• The MSP430 also has an A/D module based on a Sigma-Delta
(sometimes called Delta-Sigma) A/D converter scheme.
– Called the SD16_A module.
– This A/D scheme is very complicated (w/r/t SAR) and beyond the scope of
this course.
– This type of converter gives you more precision—but slower to stabilize.
– On the MSP430, this module is about 100 times slower than the ADC10/12.
• The only A/D converter we have on the G2553 part is the
ADC10.

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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (A/D)

Another alternative…

Flash ADC:
– Produces digital result “in a flash”!
– Instantaneous output change.
– Lots of circuitry required however.
– Required in multimedia applications
or any time rapid conversions are
required.

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 A/D and D/A General Issues

A/D and D/A General Issues:

• Accuracy
– How consistent are repeated conversions with a constant analog or digital
input?

• Resolution/Precision
– If the analog or digital input changes very slightly, will the digital or analog
output reflect the change?

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 A/D and D/A Uses

• We live in an analog world, so input from many different sensors

are analog in their nature.
• Many forms of stimulus that a microcontroller needs to monitor
are not electrical in nature:
– Temperature
– Pressure
– Light
– Weight
– Airflow
– Humidity
– Et cetera
• Transducers are used to transform the non-electrical quantities
mentioned above into analog voltages (and vice-versa).
• Now if a microcontroller is expected to understand this analog
information (i.e. detect the temperature, pressure, amount of
light, et cetera) it needs an A/D converter to convert this quantity
to a number.

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 A/D and D/A Uses

• Transducers are devices that convert one form of energy to

another form of energy. For our purposes we are typically
interested in converting non-electrical energy into electrical
energy and vice-versa.
• Examples of transducers:
– Piezoelectric materials
– Microphone/speakers
– Photoelectric cells/light bulbs/LEDs
– Electrical generators/electrical motors
– …and the list goes on forever…
• If a microcontroller expects to make sound, move an object with
a motor, generate light, and so on, the digital information it
contains must be translated. First a D/A converter converts
digital information into a pure form of electricity (analog voltage).
Then a transducer can change electrical energy into some
other form of energy.

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 A/D and D/A Uses

• The analog input to an A/D or the analog output of a D/A may

not meet the electrical requirements for the transducer.

• Signal conditioning (amplification and shifting) can be applied

to these analog signals.
– Operational amplifier circuits are often used for this.
– The A/D or D/A voltage references may need to change for different
applications.

• Noise can be an issue.

– Digital clock lines contain very high frequency components and can “rattle”
nearby analog voltages.
– AC sources are a common source of 50 or 60 Hz noise.
– Noise can be dampened with capacitors and mitigated by decoupling
analog and digital voltage rails.

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 The MSP430 (D/A and A/D)

• Some varieties of the MSP430 have a built-in A/D converter.

• May have ADC10, ADC12, or SD16_A module.
• Can reconfigure port pins to become analog inputs.
• Our MSP430 (G2553) has only one ADC10 module.
• Some MSP430s (not ours) have a 12-bit D/A converter
(DAC12).
• If an A/D converter or D/A converter is not built into your
microcontroller, then you have to interface one externally (but
this generally isn’t a big deal).
• There are many standalone A/D and D/A converters on the
market to choose from.

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Fall 2014