Introduction to Political Analysis I

POS 203
 Course Outline
• The Essence of Politics
• Conceptions of Politics
• The Importance and Nature of Political Analysis
• The Language of Inquiry in Political Science Analysis
Approaches to the Study of Politics
• Traditional Approaches
• The Behavioral Approach
• Systems approach and Structural-Functionalist approach
• Class Approach, Elite Approach.
• Political Systems, Political Process and Political Action.
• Power, Authority and Legitimacy
• Political Culture
• Political Socialisation
• Political Participation
• Political Representation
• Political Parties and Interest Groups
•

•
 INTRODUCTION

• “Man is by nature a political animal.” This famous aphorism

by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, implies that it is in the
character of man to associate with others and to live in
society. We may also deduce from this saying that man has
engaged in politics and reflected on political issues over a
long period of time. The situation is not different today. In
fact in today’s world, politics seems to have grown in
intensity. As Deutsch (1970:3) pointed out, we live in an
age of growing politicization where the water we drink, the
air we breathe, marriage and divorce, the neigbourhood we
live in the education of the young, the cost of petrol, the
care for the elderly and the aspirations and fears of minority
groups all fall within the purview of politics. But what
exactly is politics?
 Conceptions of politics
• as:
• collective decision and action
• peaceful resolution of societal struggles and
conflicts
• conflicts among classes
• the operation of the state.
 Politics as Collective Decision and
Action

One of the conceptions of politics is that it is a

matter of reaching collective decisions and taking
collective actions. The clearest example of this
conception-type is perhaps that given by Miller
(2002) who stated that “politics is the process
whereby a group of people, whose opinions or
interests are initially divergent, reach collective
decisions which are generally regarded as
binding on the group, and enforced as common
policy”.
 Politics as the Peaceful Resolution of
Societal Struggles and Conflicts
• There are those who suggest that politics is the art
of finding peaceful resolutions to general societal
conflicts through compromise and the building of
consensus. However, if this fails and military
conflict or any kind of violence erupts as a
consequence, then politics can be said to have
been rejected or failed. Bernard Crick (1962;
2004) is perhaps the best-known advocate of this
position. For him, politics is ‘only one possible
solution to the problem of order’ (1962:18
Politics as the Conflicts among Classes

• For many, rather than being defined in terms of consensus-

building and cooperation, politics is all about conflict and it
is politics that leads to greater social cohesion based around
agreement on core values. This is the conception of politics
which derive from the writings of Karl Marx. According to
Marx, every society is interlocked in a struggle between two
broad classes in society. These classes are differentiated in
terms of their relations to the mode of production in society:
those who own and control the means of production; these
constitute the class of oppressors, and the ‘have nots’ who
belong to the class of the oppressed.
 Politics as the Operation of the State

The state is sovereign in the sense that it is the

supreme law-making body within a particular
territory. The implication of the supremacy of
the state is that it has absolute and perpetual
power in its domestic use of power and
authority over all persons and things within its
territory.
 Importance of Studying Political
Science and Political Analysis
• Studying political science has the following values:
• studying political science may be of value as an
intellectual activity in its own right and part of the
growth of and development of civilization;

• studying political science may be of value in terms of

changing interpretations of society at a time of rapid
and continual change;
• studying political science may have value as a socially
applicable area of study so as to aid in the achievement
of desired outcomes.
 Goals of Political Analysis
• Political analysis is the major task undertaken by Political Scientists.

• According to Osaghae (1988), political analysis has three main

goals:

• To know what is important in politics, i.e. those things that

influence or determine the outcome of events.

• To know what is valuable, i.e. the difference every political outcome

makes to our desires, both individually and collectively; and

To know what is real or true by systematically subjecting our guesses,

impressions, popular belief, even rumors, to verification.
 Types of Political Analysis

• Normative Analysis
• This type of political analysis asks questions
of value and seeks to identify what is good or
better with a view to recommending what we
ought to value. It will ask, for instance,
whether, when, and why we ought to value
freedom, or democracy or equality and why
should we obey the state.
 Naturalism

• This viewpoint holds that there are certain

moral values or principles which are true and
useful criteria because they are descriptions of
the true property of man. Thus, for example,
knowing that we will all seek happiness, any
decision which promotes happiness is
necessarily good. This viewpoint is highly
useful because it closes the gap between value
judgments and factual judgments.
 Intuition

•
• According to this view, although the quality of goodness
cannot be perceived by the ordinary senses, every man is
endowed with a special capacity for knowing what is good.
For some intuitionists like St. Augustine, the knowledge of
God leads to the discovery of moral truths and goodness.
For instance when one raises the question about why
obedience should be secured for the state or why must we
obey the state? An answer can be based on religious belief.
Here, obedience is secured because God has commanded it.
For others like Plato and Rousseau, goodness is not
necessarily from God, but one that is discoverable through
knowledge of the structure of the universe.
 Noncognitivism or subjectivism

• According to this view, intrinsic values, unlike

factual assertions, cannot be shown to be true
or false. Whatever, we say is true or good is an
assertion of our .belief: “They may reveal
one’s orientations or intentions toward the
world and towards one's fellow creatures but
unlike factual judgments, they lack the
cognitive status of objective propositions:
hence the name noncognitivism”
 Empirical Analysis

• The second type of analysis common to politics is

empirical. Empirical analysis seeks to identify
observable phenomena in the real world with a
view to establishing what is, rather than what
ought to be. Empirical analysis, of course, is the
basis of the natural sciences, and many so-called
positivist political analysts seek to bring to bear
what they see as the impartial and value free
methods of the natural sciences to the study of
political phenomena.
 Semantic Analysis

• The third type of analysis commonly used in

politics is that of semantics. This is also called
conceptual analysis. As its name suggests, this
form of analysis is concerned with clarifying the
meaning of concepts. This is an important
function in political studies. So many of the
concepts used in politics like power, influence,
democracy, freedom, development, even politics
itself, have no commonly accepted definitions
and, indeed, have been described as ‘essentially
contested concepts’
 Policy Analysis

• Policy analysis involves the search for policies

or course of action which will take us from the
present state to that which we desire. In other
words, policies are solutions which we think
will bring desired and satisfactory results.
Certainly, in any unsatisfactory situation, there
would be more than one possible solution
 THE LANGUAGE OF INQUIRY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

• Understanding Concepts
• A concept is an abstraction or general notion that may
serve as a unit of a theory. Concepts are the generally
accepted bundle of meanings or characteristics
associated with certain events, processes, conditions,
behavior (actions) and situations (Cooper &
Schindler, 2001: 39 cf. Paki Inokoba, 2006: 94).
 Concepts Necessary in Political
Analysis
• Generalization
• Hypotheses
• Variables
• Theories
• Classification
• Verifiability
 Generalisation

• These are statements which describe general

conditions or properties of the things we are
interested in. They are usually stated in law-
like terms which are testable. It is often argued
that it is the business of social science to be a
generalising activity, so that the propositions it
makes about people or political systems have
relevance beyond a particular system.
 Hypotheses

• Hypotheses are tentative explanations,

suppositions, or assertions that are formulated
to be tested and, when extensively tested and
confirmed, either take on the views of the
world.
 Variables

• A variable is a property that takes on different

values or assumes different characteristics. Take
democracy for instance. Democracy can mean
free and fair elections, freedom of the press, or
freedom of association. There are two types of
variables. First, there is the dependent variable,
which is what is to be explained by another
variable. Second, there is the independent
variable, which is the variable which explains the
dependent variable.
 Theories

• Theories are those explanations of uniformities

that involve two or more generalisations but
which, even though widely held, require
empirical validation for confirmation.
 Classification

Classification may be considered as the activity

of grouping objects with perceived similarities
or attributes into two or more named classes.
Classification rests basically on the
recognition of similarities and differences and
the ability to group these into sets.
 Verifiability

• A proposition is said to be verified when it has

been checked or tested by many specialists in
the relevant field of study and when they all
agree that other scientists and the general
public can believe it to be true.
 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
POLITICS

• Normative Approach
• Normative Political approach is concerned with
the discovery and application of moral notions in
the sphere of political relations and practice
(Stoker, 1995). It deals with the inquiry into the
problems of man and society. In the view of Leo
Strauss, “it is the attempt to know both the nature
of political things and the right, or the good
political conduct... (through) critical and coherent
analysis”
 Subject matter of the normative
approach
• The subject matter of the normative approach has
principally remained the state, its evolution, organisation
and purpose. Accordingly, normative political thinkers seek
answers to questions such as these: What is the state and
who should preside over the affairs of the state? What is
political obligation and why should the state be obeyed?
What ends should the state serve and how can it be
structured to achieve these ends? What are the proper limits
on state authority and when may citizens refuse to obey it?
How should the state relate to other organisations in
society? What is justice and how best can it be guaranteed?
What is the essence of liberty and equity? Where is
sovereignty to be located?
 The Institutional Approach

• The institutional approach to the study of

political process is concerned with the rules,
procedures and formal organisations of the
political system and their impact on political
practice (Stoker, 1995).
 Historical-Comparative
• A key element of the institutional approach is
the historical - comparative method. Here,
political analyst seeks to develop testable
generalisations by examining political
phenomena across different political systems
or historically within the same political
system. Thus, in carrying out comparative
analysis, political scientists examine history,
especially the evolution of the institutions they
are studying.
 Criticism of the Traditional
Approaches
• The traditional approaches have been criticised as static and oversimplified
assumptions about today's reality of the political process. Much of the work of
traditional institutional studies has rightly been subject to criticism for the
weakness of its methods, the anti-theoretical, descriptive nature of its product,
and an underlying prescriptive perspective based on an idealised conception of
the virtues of liberal democratic government.
• Specifically, it has been argued that the traditional approach’s concern for
‘hyperfactualism’ or ‘reference for facts’ meant that political scientists suffered
from ‘theoretical malnutrition’ (Easton, 1971). In the process, they neglected ‘the
general framework within which these facts could acquire meaning (Easton, ibid,
p. 89).
•
• They have also been accused of formalism or focusing on rules and procedures
to the neglect of the actual political behaviour.
•
 THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
Features of the Behavioral Approach
Criticisms of the Behavioural Approach
Post-Behaviouralism
 Systems Approach
• System analysis is an attempt by David
Easton, its originator, to apply general systems
theories to political science. In this pioneering
effort, Easton (1953) insisted that political
system “is that system of interactions in any
society through which binding or authoritative
allocations are made.”
 Merits of the Systems Approach
• It provides a framework that helped to move political science away from an exclusive concern
with the nation state (and its institutions such as the government) to the study of all groups and
institutions in social context.
•
• Following from the above, it provides a standardised set of concepts such as inputs and
outputs to describe activities which take place in all political systems, and hence providing the
framework for comparing political systems
•
• By drawing attention to the external environment of every political system, it is a useful
approach for analysing the international political, system, especially the linkage between the
domestic and the international environments.
•
• It enables us to selectively identify and organise what is political when you look at the whole
society. It also enables us to identify the interrelationships of political phenomena -cabinet
office, political parties, ethnicity, and so on- and between these and other phenomena which
are politically relevant but belong to other realms of society -family, economic relations,
industrial relations, educational system, etc.
 Criticisms of the Systems Approach

• In drawing out its framework of analysis

which focused attention on all ‘those
institutions and processes involved in the
authoritative allocation of values for society’,
Easton reduced the state to nothing more than
a ‘black box’ that simply receives and shuns
out input and output indifferently.
• Thus, the systems approach underestimates the
complexity of governance. For example, the impression
that demands are claims made on the political system
by individuals and groups in the environment of the
political system neglects the view that government
through its own deliberate actions and inactions
instigates and generates demands which form the basis
of policy decisions.
•
• The most popular criticism is that the approach is
conservative and ideologically oriented towards
retaining the status quo.
 Structural Functionalist Approach
(SFA)

• This approach is an offshoot of systems approach. It

focuses largely on explaining the functions a political
system must perform to survive and defines structures
or Organisations which can most efficiently perform
the functions. The structures may be political parties,
pressure groups or formal government institutions
performing system-maintenance functions such as
informing the electorate on important issues and
allowing for wider participation in the political system
 Merits of the Structural Functionalist
Approach
• The structural-functionalist approach facilitates comparison among
political systems. If political systems-whether village or
industrialised-require the basic functions to survive they can be
compared if these functions are identified, and the structures which
perform them are also identified.
•
• Although the approach emphasises the structures in a system, it is
more interested in the behaviour of these structures. Specifically, it
focuses on what structures do rather than on what their
characteristics are. In other words, it wants to find out what the
behaviour is and why it is important. By so doing, we know that
some structures perform other functions apart from the manifest
ones.
•
 Criticisms of the Structural Functionalist Approach

its emphasis on system-maintenance makes it

ideological opposed to revolutionary change.
To be sure, functionalists acknowledge that
change is sometimes necessary to correct
social dysfunctions (the opposite of functions),
but that it must occur slowly so that people
and institutions can adapt without rapid
disorder. Thus, it is by its very nature
conservative:
 Criticisms
The approach relies heavily on national political
systems, thereby suggesting that politics does
not take place outside of the state realm. In
addition, it does not actually specify what
political activities are.
 Criticisms
By placing a lot of emphasis on functions and
functional behaviour, the approach diverts
attention away from the institutions and
structures themselves which perform these
functions.
• Class Analysis Approach or Marxism
• Contributions of the Class Approach
• Criticisms of the Class Approach and its
Subsequent Modification
• Elite Approach
• Contributions of the Elite Approach
• Criticisms and Modifications of the Elite
Approach
 ELITE THEORY

• In this approach, public policy can be regarded as the values

and preferences of the governing elites. The essential
argument of the elite theory is that it is not the people or the
“masses” who determine public policy through their
demands and action, rather, public policy is decided by
ruling elite and effected by public officials and agencies
 Summary of the elite theory
1. Society is divided into the few who have power and the many
that do not;
2. The elites are drawn disproportionately from the upper
socio-economic strata of society;
3. Movement of the non-elite to elite positions must be slow and
continuous to maintain stability and avoid revolution.
4. The elites share a consensus on the basic values of the social
system and the preservation of the system;
5. Public policy does not reflect demands of the masses but
rather the prevailing values of the elite;
6. The elites influence the masses more than masses influence
the elite.
 POLICY MAKING PROCESS

Policy making is the process by which the government or

enterprise develops or formulates and implements an effective
strategy to meet desired objectives.
Strategy in this context is the unified comprehensive plan that is
developed to reach these objectives.

Public policy process can be classified into five stages, as

illustrated in the following:
POLICY MAKING PROCESS
 POLICY FORMATION STAGE

Stage 1: Problem identification

Stage 2: Policy agenda

Approaches to agenda setting

1. Let it happen approach
2. Encourage it to happen approach
3. Make it happen approach
 STAGE 1: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

• This involves a situation where human needs, deprivation or

dissatisfaction appear that must be addressed. If enough
people believe the nature of the problem is such that
government should respond, it then becomes a public rather
than a private problem.
• Public problems involve large numbers of people and have
broad-ranging effects including consequences for people not
directly involved such as national minimum wage. Thus
problem identification entails the demand for action to resolve
a problem.
 POLICY FORMULATION STAGE

This involves the development of pertinent and acceptable

proposed courses of action for dealing with public problems.
Policy formulation in Nigeria is often done by the president
and his immediate advisers, other members of the executive
branch, career and appointed administrative officials, specially
appointed committees and commissions and legislators, who
introduce bills for consideration by the national assembly.
 POLICY ADOPTION STAGE

• This process means having a particular proposal authorized.

Formulators do not think only of problems and how to solve
them, but whether the course of action is feasible getting it
authorized. Decision or choices of policy requires some
authoritative ratification as an aspect of the principle of public
accountability. While decision may be effectively reached at
one level, they will often be authorized and confirmed at
another.

• The most formal adoption strategy is one of proposal,

legislative approval and Presidential (Executive) signature.
 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Policy implementation is the process of assembling resources

(including people), allocating resources and utilizing
resources (operations), in order to achieve policy objectives.

The administrative agencies are the primary implementers of

public policy, but the judiciary and legislature are also
involved.
 POLITICAL SYSTEMS, POLITICAL
PROCESS AND POLITICAL ACTION

• Political Systems’ Legitimacy: Power,

Authority
• Political Culture
• Political Socialization
• Political Participation
 What is Political Power?

According to Max Weber, “power is the

possibility of imposing one’s will upon the
behaviour of other persons” (Gerth & Mills,
1946). Power, according to him, involves
domination – a reciprocal relationship
between the rulers and the ruled in which the
actual frequency of compliance is only one
aspect of the fact that the power of command
exists.
 Types of Power

Three major types of power may be

distinguished in terms of the type of
influence .brought to bear on the
subordinated individual. These are force,
domination and manipulation.
 Types of Power

Force - The power-holder exercises force when

he/she influences behaviour by a physical
manipulation of the subordinated individual
(assault, confinement, etc.).
Domination - For Max Weber, “domination” is
identical with the “authoritarian power of
command”
 Manipulation
This is the third form of power and it obtains
when an actor influences the behaviour of
others without making explicit the behaviour
which he/she wants them to perform.
 Difference between Power and
Authority
What demarcates authority from power is that
the former is power/influence recognised as
rightful while authority is government that all
accept as valid.
 What is Political Culture?

The definitions of political culture are many and

varied. Roy Macridis (1961) defines it as the
“commonly shared goals and commonly accepted
rules.’ Dennis Kavanagh defines it as a shorthand
expression to denote the set of values within
which the political system operates (Kavanagh,
1993). Lucian Pye describes it as “the sum of the
fundamental values, sentiments and knowledge
that give form and substance to political
process”. Samuel Beer (1958) says it is one of the
four variables crucial to the analysis of political
systems.
 Political Socialisation

Political scientists have offered various

definitions of political socialisation. There is a
general agreement; however, that political
socialisation involves the transmission of the
political culture of a group or the society to
successive members of that group or society.
In order words, political socialisation refers to
the process by which the central values of the
political culture are transmitted from one
generation to another.
 Agents of Socialisation

• The Family
• The school
• Peer groups
• Mass media
 What is Political Participation?

Political participation encompasses the various

activities that citizens employ in their efforts
to influence policy making and the selection of
leaders. According to Orum (1978), political
participation refers simply to the “variety of
ways in which people try to exercise influence
over the political process.”