Loading and Load Path in Structural

Systems

• The term “Load Path” is used to describe the route by which

loads are transmitted to the foundations

• Different structural systems will have different load paths (i.e.

frames and arches)
 Load path in frame structures

Load Path:
Slab Beam Column Foundation
 HVAC
Every load applied to
the building will travel
through the structural
system until it is
transferred to the
supporting soil.
 Load Calculation
• Dead Loads (permanent): self-weight of structure and
attachments

• Live Loads ( Non-permanent): vehicles, people, furniture, ect.

• Wind Loads

• Seismic Loads

• Other
Load Combinations

Load case Design load combination Dominant Load

Ultimate limit State ( Strength)
1 1.5Dn Self-weight
2 1.2Dn + 1.6Ln Imposed
3 1.2Dn + 0.5Ln + 1.3Wn Wind
4 0.9Dn + 1.3Wn Wind-uplift

Serviceability (Deflection)
1 1.1Dn + 1.0Ln Imposed
2 1.1Dn + 0.3Ln + 0.6Wn Wind

Dn - Dead load

Ln - Imposed load/Live load

Wn - Wind load
 Dead loads : Self-weight

W = density of the material x the volume of the structural member

 Walls and Slabs
Brick wall : Area (A) = L1 x L2 = 2m x 2m = 4.0 square metres
Thickness (t) = 0.1 metres
Volume (V) = A x t = 4 x 0.1 = 0.4 m3
Density (p) = 1900 kg/m3
L1 Gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2
Mass (m) = V x p = 0.4 m3 x 1900 kg/m3 = 760 kg
Load (N/m) = (m x g)/ L2 = (760 kg x 9.81 m/s2)/2m =3728 N/m
L2

Concrete slab : Area (A) = L1 x L2 = 2m x 2m = 4.0 square metres

Thickness (t) = 0.2 metres
Volume (V) = A x t = 4.0 x 0.2 = 0.8 m3
L1
L2 Density (p) = 2400 kg/m3
Gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2
Mass (m) = V x p = 0.8 m3 x 2400 kg/m3 = 1920 kg
Load (N/m2) = m x g/(L1 x L2) = (1920 kg x 9.81 m/s2)/4m2 = 4709
N/m2
The floor system of a building consists of a 150mm thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on four steel floor slab beams, which in turn are supported by two steel
girders, as shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of the floor beams is
9480 mm2 and the girders’ is 33740 mm2. The unit weight of concrete is 24 kN/m3
and that of structural steel is 77 kN/m3. Determine the dead load on beam CG, DH
and the girder AD respectively.

3 at 3m = 9m

A B C D

8m

150 mm
concrete
slab
E F G H
Steel column
Steel floor beam
Steel girder
 3 at 3m = 9m

1.5 m 1.5 m
A B D

8m

150 mm
concrete slab

E F G H

Steel column
Steel floor beam

Steel girder
Tributary area for beam CG
Beam CG:

WCG = 24 kN/m3 x 0.15 m x 3 m + 77 kN/m3 x (9480/1000000) m2 = 11.53 kN/m

Uniformly distributed
10.8kN/m (From slab) 0.73kN/m (Beam weight)
load – (UDL)

Beam DH:

WDH= 24 x 0.15 x 1.5 + 77 x 9480/1000000 = 6.13kN/m

WBF = WCG = 11.53kN/m

5.4kN/m 0.73kN/m
WAE = WDH = 6.13kN/m
PA (24.52 kN) PB (46.12 kN) PC (46.12 kN) PD (24.52 kN)

WAD (2.6 kN/m)

D
A

3m 3m 3m

Girder Loads:
WAD= 77x33740/1000000 = 2.598 kN/m
PB = PC = 11.53 x 8/2 = 46.12 kN
PA = PD = 6.13 x 8/2 = 24.52 kN
Column Loads:
CA = CD = 82.33 kN
 Wind Loads
− Resulting loads yield: W IND
• Lateral pressures on walls
u r e
• Downward and upward pressure on
Pr es s Up
roofs lift
• Overturning of the structure

− Loading is specified in Sucti

building codes on
• SANS 10160 – 3
Basis of structural design and actions for
buildings and
industrial structures Part 3 : Wind action
 Wind load Calculation
Typically wind-loading codes give a four-step approach to
calculate the loading
Step 1: Determine the nominal wind speed (Vz) = V x kz m/s
-South African wind speed contour map (SANS 10160-3)
-Typically a wind speed which is likely to occur in a 50 year period (V)
- 40 m/s for most of the country, 45m/s central Karoo, 50 m/s Beaufort West
-Wind speed is multiplied by a factor to account for building height and terrain
roughness (kz)

Multiplying factor (Kz)

Level, clear Scattered small building Close buildings and
Building height terrain or trees trees Major buildings
5 1.02 0.92 0.64 0.62
10 1.08 0.98 0.71 0.62
20 1.13 1.05 0.83 0.62
50 1.21 1.15 0.98 0.84
100 1.27 1.22 1.1 0.98
Step 2: Determine the free-stream velocity pressure (q z) = kp x Vz2 N/m2
- Wind pressure is dependant of the square of the nominal wind speed
and the air density
- kp is the air density factor
- Air density decreases with increased height( Linear interpolation must be
used for intermediate altitudes)

Air density factor (Kp)

Altitude Kp

0 0.60

500 0.56
1000 0.53
1500 0.50
2000 0.47
Step 3: Determine the pressures on the structural element

- The pressure coefficient (Cp) represents the relationship between the free-stream
pressure and the pressure acting at a point on the structure

- Pressure coefficient (Cp) x free-stream velocity pressure (qz) = pressure at a

particular point on the structure (P)

- Pressure coefficients are given in codes of practice (they are derived from wind tunnel
experiments on small-scale structures)

- There are two types of pressure coefficient to determine pressures on the internal and
external surfaces of an element (Cp (-) suction, Cp (+) pressure)

Step 4: Determine the forces acting on the element (F)

- F = Az x qz x (Cpe – Cpi)
 Example:

A 5 storey office building with a height of 15m and plan 15mx15m is to be built in a
Bloemfontein suburb with level and clear terrain. Find out the total wind load on the
building.

V = 40m/s
Altitude = 1350 m

Pressure coefficients: 15m

15m
From SANS 10160 - 3
Cpi= 0
Cpe = +0.8 (windward face)
15m
Cpe = -0.5 (leeward face)

0
Wind +0.8 -0.5
 qz
Height Storey V (m/s) kz Vz (m/s) kp Az (m ) (kN/m2)
2
F (kN)
3 First storey 40 1.00 40 0.52 45 0.83 48.67
6 Second storey 40 1.03 41.2 0.52 45 0.88 51.64
9 Third storey 40 1.07 42.8 0.52 45 0.95 55.72
12 Fourth storey 40 1.09 43.6 0.52 45 0.99 57.83
15 Fifth storey 40 1.11 44.4 0.52 22.5 1.03 29.98
243.84

Total Force acting on the structure = 244 kN

 Soil Pressure Loads
GRADE
Soil Pressure Loads
– Soil adjacent to a structure
will apply a lateral force
– Magnitude increases with
depth
BASEMENT

SOIL
Hydro-static and Soil Pressure

p  h

Unit weight of the

liquid
 Earthquake loads
• Earthquake loads are an inertial force
V  C sW
S DS
CS 
R/I
V - total lateral force or base shear
CS - seismic response coefficient
SDS - design spectral response acceleration in a short period range
R - modification factor
I - importance factor
In South Africa, loads due to earthquakes are unlikely to exceed the loads due to wind,
and thus they are seldom critical to structural strength.

Some precautions need to be taken for design of structures to be built in areas

susceptible to earthquake activities.
 The plan geometry of buildings should not include sharp re-entrant corners

X
X X
Similarly, in shape design, in the vertical plane, a sudden change
in stiffness should also be prevented.

X X
- Heavy walls which are laterally unsupported should be avoided

- Heavy roofing materials should be avoided

- Cantilevers should be avoided, fail-safe design preferred.
Thermal loads

-All materials expand or contract when temperature increases and decreases

respectively.
-Loads are induced when there is restraint against either the expansion of
contraction of the element.
-Typically expansion joints are utilized to accommodate expansion
Load caused by support settlement