KEY SCIENCE

SKILLS
CHAPTER 1
LESSONS
1A: Introduction to research
1B: Scientific research methodologies
1C: Population, sample and sampling
1D: Preventing error and bias
1E: Organising and interpreting data
1F: Evaluating research
1G: Ethical considerations
1A: Introduction
to research
• Scientific vs non-scientific ideas
• Models and theories
• Aims and hypotheses
• Variables (IV, DV, control)
Scientific and non-scientific ideas
Science Non-science
• A field of practice that obtains • Ideas formed without empirical
knowledge and generates theories evidence or use of scientific method
through observation and experiment • Could be pseudosciences
• Key feature is empirical evidence. • Imprecise or vague
• Objective

The scientific method is a procedure used to obtain knowledge involving hypothesis

formulation, testing and re-testing through processes of experimentation, observation,
measurement and recording.
Models and theories
Theory Model
• Proposition used to explain or make • Representation of a concept,
predictions about something process or behaviour
• For example: Behaviourism – • For example: multi-store model of
behaviour is learnt through memory
interaction with the environment

Note: There may be multiple or alternative theories and models that

may be considered valid.
Aims and hypotheses
An aim is a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.
Should be succinct and straightforward – usually one sentence.
For example: The aim of this study is to investigate the role of high-quality
sleep on concentration.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation.

Should include variables, population, prediction.
For example: It was hypothesised that high school students who had high-
quality sleep would perform better on tests of concentration than those who did not
have high-quality sleep.
Variables
Controlled experiments are a type of investigation where the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable is tested while aiming to control all
other variables.

Independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV) is measured by the researcher.

Operationalising variables refers to specifying how the variables will be

manipulated and measured for a particular experiment.
• Copy the hypothesis
• Identify the IV, DV, population and prediction
• Write an operationalized IV and DV

It was hypothesised that high school students

who had high-quality sleep would perform better
on tests of concentration than those who did not
have high-quality sleep.
Controlled variables
Controlled variables are variables other than the IV that a researcher holds constant
(or controls) in an investigation.
For example: In a study of concentration, researchers will ensure all
participants complete their tests in a silent room. Therefore, ‘noise level’ is constant
and does not impact the DV.

Provide two more examples of controlled variables in a study of concentration.

1B: Scientific
research
methodologies
• Investigation methodologies
• Controlled experiments designs
• Types of fieldwork
Investigation methodologies
Investigation methodologies refer to any of the different processes, techniques
and/or types of studies a researcher can use.
Types of psychological studies
Controlled experiments Case studies Correlational studies
• Investigates causal • In-depth investigation of • Non-experimental study
relationship between IV an individual, group or that measures the
and DV in a controlled phenomenon that relationship between two
environment contains a real or or more variables without
• Most scientifically hypothetical situation active control
rigorous and strict • Gathers highly detailed • Strength of the
information relationship between
• Used when rare or hard variables
to repeat phenomenon • Correlation can be
positive, negative or no
correlation
Controlled experiments
Correlational studies
 Correlation versus causation
Using the diagram below, differentiate between
correlation and causation.
Other processes and techniques
Classification Identification
• Arrangement of phenomena, objects, • Process of recognising phenomena
or events into manageable sets as belonging to sets
• Creates labels or groups for • Assigns things to a label or group
phenomena • For example: when a ‘set’ of
• For example: psychologists created symptoms are seen they can be
groups of symptoms for mental diagnosed
disorders
Other processes and techniques
Field work Literature review
• Any research involving observation • Collating and analysing secondary
and interaction with people and data to answer a question or provide
environments in real-world settings background information
• Observations, interviews, • Secondary data: collected by others
questionnaires, focus groups • Usually used before conducting new
• Used to determine correlation rather study
than causation
• Authentic settings, rather than
controlled
Other processes and techniques
Product, process, or
Modelling system development Simulation
• Construction and/or • Design or evaluation of • Using a model to study
manipulation of a an artefact, process, or the behaviour of a real
physical or conceptual system to meet human or theoretical system
model used to explain, needs
simplify and demonstrate • Used when too
• Human need is complex, impractical
• Physical: a plastic human
brain identified that can be or dangerous in reality
served by technology
• Conceptual: multi-store or scientific knowledge
model of memory and procedures
Controlled experiment designs
In controlled experiments, there are control and experimental groups or conditions.

Experimental group: group of participants who are exposed to the IV

Control group: group of participants who receive or are not exposed to IV – they are
the baseline for comparison

Note: There are different experimental designs within controlled experiments.

Experimental designs
Within subjects Between subjects Mixed design
• Participants complete • Participants are divided • Combines elements of
every experimental into different groups within-subjects and
condition and only complete one between-subjects
• Participants are in both experimental condition design
the experimental and • Participants are either • Multiple conditions
control group in the experimental or with both experimental
control group and control groups
Identify which image relates to each experimental
design
Types of fieldwork
Fieldwork has high ecological validity which means its findings can be applied to the
real-world due to the naturalistic settings.

Direct observation – researcher watches and listens to participants of a study, with

no direct intervention and involvement, or manipulation of variables
Qualitative interviews – researcher asks questions (generally open ended) to gather
in-depth information in a structured or semi-structured interview
Questionnaires – set of questions or prompts given to participants to answer
digitally or with pen and paper (can be open ended or closed)
Focus groups – researcher conducts a discussion with a small group on a specific
topic
Types of fieldwork
Yarning circles – In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, it is traditional
approach to group discussion which involves talking, exchanging ideas, reflection
and deep, considered listening without judgement
• Culturally appropriate when collecting data from Aboriginal and Torres Straight
Islander Peoples
• Emphasis on lack of judgement, letting preconceived notions, and key cultural
principles such as respect, inclusion, and sharing.
• Research must be active member of discussion, not just a neutral facilitator
1C: Population,
sample and
sampling
• Population and sample
• Sampling techniques
Population and sample
Population Sample
The population is the group of people the The sample (research participants) are a subset
research is focused on. of the population that participate in the study.
This allows researchers to draw conclusions This is used as it is not possible to test
and obtain knowledge about this specific everyone in the population.
group.

The sample should be highly representative of

the population so results are able to be
generalised to the population.

Note: This refers to the ability for the sample’s results

to be used to make conclusions
Generalisation
To make results generalisable, the sample must be representative of the population,
otherwise it can be said that “potential findings from this study would not be able to be
generalised to the population”

A sample will be representative when:

• it has the same proportions of relevant demographics as the target population
• the sample size is large (bigger sample size = more likely to be representative)
• the sampling technique isn’t bias and reflects the populations makeup

Note: When evaluating the appropriateness of a sample, consider how representative the
sample is of the population.
Sampling techniques
Convenience sampling Random sampling Stratified sampling
• Selecting readily • Every member of the • Selecting people from
available members of population has an the population that
the population equal chance to be ensures subgroups
selected (strata) are
proportionally
For example: The first 50 represented
people to walk past For example: Using a
random name generator
 List some advantages and disadvantages of
each of the sampling techniques.

Sampling Advantages Disadvantages

technique
Convenience
sampling

Random
sampling

Stratified
sampling
Allocation
Allocation is the process of assigning
participants to experimental or
control groups.

Often, random allocation is used in

which each participant has an equal
chance of being placed in either
group.
1D: Preventing
error and bias
• Extraneous and confounding variables
• Preventing extraneous and
confounding variables
Extraneous and confounding
variables
Extraneous variables Confounding variable
• Any variable not the IV that may • A variable that has directly affected the
cause an unwanted effect on the DV DV – apart from the IV
• Should be controlled so they do not • Can be an extraneous variable that was
interfere with results not controlled (or cannot be controlled)
• Must be shown to have impacted the
• Should be identified at the before
results (consistently and in a
the experiment begins predictable way)
• Can only be identified at the end of the
experiment
Examples of extraneous and
confounding variables
Participant-related variables Order effects
• Individual participant differences • The order in which participants
• Age, intelligence, socioeconomic complete experimental conditions
status • Usually for within-subjects
experimental designs
• Practice effects: perform better due
to having done it before
• Fatigue effects: perform worse due
to being tired/bored
Examples of extraneous and
confounding variables
Placebo effect Experimenter effect Situational variables
• Respond to inactive • Experimenter bias • Environmental factors
substance/treatment • Expectations of the that may impact DV
(placebo) as a result of researcher affects the • Temperature, lighting,
expectation or beliefs results weather, time of day
• Confirmation bias: pay
attention to what
confirms their
expectation
Examples of extraneous and
confounding variables
Non-standardized instructions Demand characteristics
and procedures
• Cues in an experiment that may
• Directions and procedures differ signal to the participant the intention
across participants or experimental of the study and influence their
groups behaviour
Preventing extraneous and
confounding variables
Sampling size and procedures Experimental design choice
• Large sample size means it is more • Choosing appropriate experimental
likely to representative of the design for the research
population For example: Within-subjects
• Outliers will have less of an impact • More likely for order effects
• Random and stratified sampling will • Less likely for participant
help ensure the sample is unbiased differences
Preventing extraneous and
confounding variables
Counterbalancing
• Reduces order effects
• Splitting participants in half with
one half completing experimental
condition A and then B
• Other half of participants complete
conditions in other order (B and then
A)
Preventing extraneous and
confounding variables
Single-blind procedures Double-blind procedures
• Participants do not know which group • Participants and experimenter do not
they have been allocated to know which group participants are
(experimental or control) allocated to
• Reduces placebo effect • Usually utilises a research assistant
• Minimises demand characteristics • Prevents experimenter effects
• Reduces placebo effect
Preventing extraneous and
confounding variables
Standardised instructions and Controlled variables
procedures
• Holding certain variables constant –
• Each participant receives the exact aside from the IV
same instructions
• Can be from standardising procedures
• Follows the same procedures
• Minimises non-standardised
instructions and procedures (including
situational variables)
1E: Organising
and interpreting
data
• Types of data
• Processing quantitative data
• Presenting data
Types of data
Primary and Quantitative and Objective and
secondary data qualitative data subjective data
• Primary data: data • Quantitative: data that • Objective: factual data
collected first-hand by is expressed that is observed and
a researcher numerically measured (no opinion)
• Secondary data: data • Qualitative: data that is • Subjective: opinion,
sourced from others’ expressed non- perception or
prior research numerically (words) interpretation
Processing quantitative data
When collecting data during
an experiment, it is in its
raw format.

Descriptive statistics help

summarise, organise, and
describe the data.
Percentages
Percentages are used to find patterns and trends based on the proportion of the whole
that is represented.

To find the percentage:

Percentage change can show the difference between groups or participants over
time. This may be an increase (positive value) or decrease (negative value)

To find percentage change:

Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency describe the centre of the distribution of data.

Mean: the average of the data set

• Should only be used when the data is normally distributed (then not influenced by
outliers)

Note: an outlier is any

extreme value that does
not fit into the data set
Measures of central tendency
Median: the middle value of the data set
• Used when the data is not normally distributed or
there are outliers

Mode: most frequently occurring value (most

common)
• Not used often
• Can be multiple modes
Measures of variability
Measures of variability summarise and describe the spread and distribution of the
data set.

Range: Used to summarise the distribution of data

Standard deviation: Describes the spread of the data from the mean
• The higher the standard deviation, the greater the spread from the mean
• The lower the standard deviation, the smaller the spread from the mean
Describe the data sets below indicating what the
standard deviation might be.
Presenting data
Presenting data
Presenting data
1F: Evaluating
research
• Evaluating research data and
investigation methods
• Drawing conclusions
Evaluating research data and
investigation methods
Research needs to be rigorously evaluated before conclusions can be drawn.

Research needs to be free of errors and meet certain standards to be able to

make conclusions and publish these findings.
Accuracy and precision
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being
measured.
True value refers to the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured
perfectly.

Note: Accuracy should be described as more accurate or less accurate

Precision refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other.
(the values are the same = high precision)

Note: Measurement can have high precision but low accuracy or vice versa. It can also
be both high or both low
Describe the following targets based on
accuracy and precision.
Measurement errors
Systematic errors are errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent
amount – this means repeating measurements would not improve them.
The presence of systematic errors means the accuracy of measurement is affected.
They may occur due to:
• Environmental factors
• Observational/researcher error
• Incorrect measurement instrument calibration
Measurement errors
Random errors are errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance –
this means they are not consistent.
The presence of random errors means the precision of measurement is affected.
Random errors may occur due to:
• Poorly controlled or varying measurement procedures
• Imperfect or faulty measurement tools
• Variations in measurement contexts – participants or environmental
May be reduced by: repeating measurements, calibrating tools, refining
procedures, controlling EVs, increasing sample size
Uncertainty in data
Uncertainty refers to the lack of exact knowledge relating to
something being measured due to potential sources of variation in
knowledge.

For example: how can we test ‘positive mood’

This shows we don’t have exact knowledge regarding the true value
of what we are measuring.
Repeatability and reproducibility
Testing a hypothesis and re-testing ensures that results are not a once-off
anomaly and can be confirmed or expanded upon.

Repeatability is the extent to which the same study or measure used under
same conditions will produce the same results.

Reproducibility is the extent to which the same study or measure, used under
different conditions or with different people or procedures, will produce the
same results.
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which psychological tools and investigations
truly support their findings or conclusions.

A valid measure is one that measures what it intends to.

Evaluating validity of an investigation uses internal validity and external

validity.
Internal validity
Internal validity is the extent to which an investigation truly measures or
investigates what it claims to.
To achieve internal validity:
• measurement tools and procedures should test what they claim
• experimental design should minimize EVs
• sampling and allocation procedures should be representative and unbiased
• IV truly affected DV with no confounding or extraneous variables

Note: if internal validity is lacking, results may not be true and conclusion cannot be
drawn
External validity
External validity is the extent to which the results of an investigation can be
applied to similar individuals in different settings.
It can be improved by:
• Using sampling procedures that create a representative sample
• Having broad inclusion criteria (diverse range of people)
• Using a larger sample size

Note: External validity can only be considered if internal validity is present.

Drawing conclusions
A conclusion is a statement that summarises the findings of a study, including whether
the hypothesis was supported or rejected.

In a psychological report, it should also include final recommendations for future

research.

A few questions to consider: (find more in Table 2)

• What did the data and statistics reveal? Does it support the hypothesis?
• Were accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility, validity, etc. considered?
• Was the aim of the study met? Why or why not?
• What might future studies do?
1G: Ethical
considerations
• Ethical concepts
• Ethical guidelines
• Factors relevant to psychological issues
Ethical concepts
Ethical concepts are principles that should be followed and considered when
completing psychological research, practicing psychology, or doing analysis.
These are different to ethical guidelines – as they are not prescribed but help guide in
a morally-conscious way.
Ethical concepts
Beneficience Integrity Justice
Commitment to maximise Commitment to searching Moral obligation to ensure
benefits and minimize for knowledge and fair consideration of
risks and harms understanding, and honest competing claims, no
• Research design reporting unfair burdens and fair
minimises harm • Objective and open distribution of benefits
• Benefits outweight reporting • Objectivity in
harms • Processes of peer evaluating results
review • Psychological practice
does not stereotype or
discriminate
Ethical concepts
Non-maleficence Respect
Avoiding causing harm – if harm Consideration of the extent to which living things
occurs, it should not be have an intrinsic value
disproportionate to benefits Giving regard to welfare, liberty and autonomy,
• Minimising psychological and beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage
physical harm Consideration to the capacity to make their own
decisions and empowering and protecting those that
• Participants’ welfare
cannot
• Cost-benefit analysis • Respect for human and non-human participants
• Protection of autonomy
Ethical guidelines
Ethical guidelines are the procedures and principles used to ensure participants are
safe and respected.
Before research begins, it must be designed to meet ethical standards and approved
by an ethics committee.
Ethical guidelines
Confidentiality Informed consent
Privacy, protection and security of Processes that ensure participants are understand
personal information – anonymity of the nature and purpose of the experiment, including
personal details, individual results potential risks before agreeing to participate
and no identifying elements • Voluntary written consent – if participants are
• Safe and secure data storage and unable to, parent or legal guardian is required
procedures • Under 18 – participant and parent or guardian is
• Anonymity required
Ethical guidelines
Use of deception Debriefing
Intentionally misleading participants At the end of the study, participant leaves
about the true nature of the study – understanding the experimental aim, results and
only acceptable when knowledge of conclusions – must be done at the end of every
the true purpose may affect behaviour study.
of participants and validity of • Participant questions to be answered
experiment.
• Support should be offered
• Possibility of deception must be
outlined in consent form • Participants told of any deception
• Deception to be fully explained at
conclusion of study
Ethical guidelines
Voluntary participants Withdrawal rights
No coercion or pressure put on Participants have the right to discontinue
participants to partake in the experiment involvement at any time during or after the
and have freely chosen to be involved experiment with no penalty.
• Must also have informed consent • Participant results removed
• No coercion but rewards are permitted • Cannot be coerced to stay
provided there are no negative • Compensation should still be offered
consequences for not participating even if they withdraw
Factors relevant to psychological
issues
Researchers and psychologists also need to consider the relevance of any
sociocultural, economic, legal, and political factors to research, analysis, or work in
the field.
These factors can play a role in what is considered right or wrong.
 Provide some examples for the four factors that
could impact:
“accessing mental health care in Australia”
Factor Examples
Sociocultural factors

Economic factors

Legal factors

Political factors