Chapter 3

LINEAR STRESS STRAIN

TEMPERATURE RELATIONS
 Stress-Strain Relations
• Theory of Stress: Based solely on the concept of force and the associated
concept of force per unit area.
• Theory of strain: Based on geometrical concepts of infinitesimal line
extensions and rotations between two infinitesimal lines.
• Material properties are required to relate stress at a point to the
corresponding strain at that point.
• The theoretical basis for these relations is the first law of thermodynamics.
• Law of conservation of energy: The work performed on a mechanical
system by external forces plus the heat that flows into the system from the
outside equals the increase in internal energy plus the increase in kinetic
energy.
• Note: Total amount of internal energy is indeterminate. So measure is only
in change in internal energy
 Homogeneous material
 The macroscopic physical, or material, properties of a body are specified by
constitutive equations. For example, a relationship between stress, strain,
and temperature is commonly specified for solid materials.

 The material properties of a solid, regardless of its shape, are generally

functions of the coordinates of the material particles.
 Solids for which the material properties vary point-wise are described as
inhomogeneous (e.g., a bi-metallic strip).
 For homogeneous solids, the material properties are the same for every
particle of the solid.

 The material properties of a homogeneous solid are described

mathematically as invariant with respect to coordinate-frame translations
 Isotropic Material
 A body is described as isotropic at a point if its properties at that point are
independent of direction.
 A body that is not isotropic is described, in the most general case, as
anisotropic.
 Properties of a body that is isotropic at a given point is described
mathematically as invariant with respect to coordinate-frame rotations (for
that point).
 A body is described as homogeneous and isotropic if its properties are
independent of direction, and identical, at every point of the body.
 Knowledge of anisotropic materials has become prominent in the last few
decades because of the applications of advanced, lightweight fiber
reinforced composite materials to aircraft and spacecraft.
Classes of material Symmetry
 Internal Energy Density
First law of thermodynamics,
=0 =0

(1)
Work Heat Increase Increase
performed by flow in internal in kinetic
external force into the energy energy
system

Considering, Adiabatic condition and static equilibrium

For each volume (1a)

element Variation in Variation in
Work of the internal
external forces energy
 Internal Energy Density

 Loaded member in equilibrium.

 The displacement components (u, v, w) for each point in the deflection member
is known. The variation in the displacement components is infinitesimal
indicated by (δu, δv, δw).

 Variations are arbitrary but two or more points cannot occupy the same point in
space or single point cannot occupy more than one position. (compatibility
condition)

 The stress components at every point of the member are considered to be

unchanged under variations of the displacements.
 Internal Energy Density

Variation of strain components (2)

resulting from (δu, δv, δw) are
 Internal Energy Density

Representation of δW:
δW = δWS + δWB
Work of Work of
the surface the body
forces forces

• V-arbitrary volume of deformed member

enclosed by a closed surface S.
• Member is in static equilibrium after
deformation (δu, δv, δw)
 Internal Energy Density

We know, the stress acting on area element (dS) on a surface S is represented as

σP and has components σPx, σPy, σPz

(3)
Surface and Body forces
 Internal Energy Density

The work of the body forces for a volume element (dV) in a volume V,

(4)

Use Gauss – divergence theorem to convert surface to volume integral,

 Internal Energy Density

The variation work is

(5)

(6)
 Internal Energy Density
The internal energy U for volume V is expressed in terms of internal
energy per unit volume (Internal Energy Density, Uo), thus

and the variation of

internal energy (7)
becomes
From, and

(8)
Elasticity and Internal Energy Density

(9)

(10)
 Elasticity and Internal Energy Density

Therefore, comparing (8) and (10)

(11)
 Elastic
Elasticity and and Complimentary
Complementary Internal Energy Density

By (11) U0 depends on ε
Energy Density

and for given temperature
depends on σ
,  
,0
C0  = Uo + Co
U 0   σdε (12)
U0
C0   εdσ
(13) 0,   
 Complementary Internal Energy Density

(14)

Strain component as function of stress components, by integrating (11)

(15)

Eqn(15) to (9), gives U0 as function of 6 stress components. Direct extension of (12) gives

(16)
 Complementary Internal Energy Density
Differentiating (16) wrt and using chain rule of differentiation

(17)

Generalized equation, obtained by differentiating (16) w.r.t. other stress components

and using (14),

(18)
Stress Strains

Conjugate relationship:
Legendre transform

Strains
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
Note that these equations imply that a normal stress σxx will induce a material
element to not only stretch in the x direction and contract laterally, but to
undergo shear strain too. Such materials are called anisotropic materials.
The 36 Cij's are material constants called the elastic coefficients, and in
principle are to be obtained from experiment.

(19)
 Generalized Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law (Anisotropic) Stress component is a

linear function of the
σ xx  C11ε xx  C12ε yy  C13ε zz  C14 γ xy  C15 γ xz  C16 γ yz strain components

σ yy  C21ε xx  C22ε yy  C23ε zz  C24 γ xy  C25 γ xz  C26 γ yz

This is not a law but
σ zz  C31ε xx  C32ε yy  C33ε zz  C34 γ xy  C35 γ xz  C36 γ yz
merely an assumption
that is reasonably
accurate for many
σ xy  C41ε xx  C42ε yy  C43ε zz  C44 γ xy  C45 γ xz  C46 γ yz
materials subjected to
σ xz  C51ε xx  C52ε yy  C53ε zz  C54 γ xy  C55 γ xz  C56 γ yz small strain.
σ yz  C61ε xx  C62ε yy  C63ε zz  C64 γ xy  C65 γ xz  C66 γ yz

The
The36
36coefficients
coefficientsCC1111to
toCC6666are
arecalled
called
elastic
elasticcoefficients
coefficients
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
Combining following equations (11) and (19) yields,

(20)
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
Appropriate differentiations of (20) gives,

(21)
 Strain energy density

By integrating (20)

U 0  12 C11ε 2xx   12 C12ε xx ε yy  12 C13ε xxε zz  12 C14ε xx γ xy  12 C15ε xx γ xz  12 C16ε xx γ yz

 12 C21ε yyε xx  12 C22ε 2yy  12 C 23ε yyε zz  12 C 24ε yy γ xy  12 C 25ε yy γ xz  12 C 26ε yyγ yz
 12 C31ε zz ε xx  12 C32ε zz ε yy  12 C33ε 2zz  12 C34ε zz γ xy  12 C 35ε zz γ xz  12 C36ε zz γ yz
 12 C41γ xyε xx  12 C42 γ xyε yy  12 C 43γ xyε zz  12 C 44 γ 2xy  12 C 45γ xy γ xz  12 C 46γ xyγ yz
 12 C51γ xz ε xx  12 C52 γ xzε yy  12 C53γ xzε zz  12 C54 γ xz γ xy  12 C 55γ 2xz  12 C 56γ xz γ yz (22)
 12 C61γ yz ε xx  12 C62 γ yz ε yy  12 C63γ yzε zz  12 C64 γ yz γ xy  12 C65γ yz γ xz  12 C66 γ 2yz
 Isotropic material

Isotropic materials have only 2 independent variables (i.e. elastic constants) in

their stiffness and compliance matrices, as opposed to the 21 elastic constants in
the general anisotropic case.

Example: Metallic alloys and thermo-set polymers

The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus E and the
Poisson's ratio ν .
Alternatively, elastic constants K (bulk modulus) and/or G (shear modulus) can
also be used.
G and K can be found from E and ν by a set of equations, and vice-versa.
 Isotropic Elasticity
Considering Principal Strain only: For linear elasticity

(23)
By symmetry, the naming of the principal axes is arbitrary

(24)

Where,

Rearranging the terms we get, (25)

 Isotropic Elasticity

General definition of strain energy density in terms of strain quantity eq (23):

(26)
Taking derivative of (26) and using below relation:

Hooke’s Law for linear elastic isotropic material

(27)
 Stress – Strain relationship
Again from equation (27) we obtain relation between stress and strain:

(28)

Inverting Hooke’s law (27):

(29)
 Stress – Strain relationship

(30a)

inverting

(30b)
 Stress – Strain relationship
Bulk modulus ,K is related to mean stress, σm= I1/3

In terms of E and ν, eq (27) :

(31)
Stress – Strain relationship

(32a)

(32b)
 Stress – Strain relationship

Strain energy density in terms of stress quantity:

(32)
Stress – Strain relationship
 Stress – Strain relationship
Hooke's Law in Compliance Form
 Young’s Modulus from Uniaxial Tension
An isotropic material subjected to uniaxial tension in x direction, xx
is the only non-zero
stress. The strains in the specimen are

The modulus of elasticity in tension, Young's modulus E, is the ratio of

stress to strain on the loading plane along the loading direction.

Under uniaxial tension, material must elongate in length implies: E > 0

 HOOK’S LAW: ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL
Orthotropic Material

• Wood, laminated plastics, cold rolled steels, reinforced

concrete, composite materials, forgings.
• Contain 3 orthogonal planes of material symmetry and 3
corresponding orthogonal axes are called the orthotropic axes.
• In forged materials, these axes may vary from point to point
• In fibre-reinforced plastics and concrete reinforced with steel
bars, orthotropic directions remain constant as long as fibres
and steel reinforcing bars maintain constant direction.
• For elastic orthotropic material, the elastic coefficients, Cij (19)
remain unchanged at a point under rotation of 1800 about any of
orthotropic axes.
FORGED MATERIAL
COMPOSITE MATERIAL

REINFORCED CONCRETE
 HOOK’S LAW: ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL

 Let (x,y,z) axes denote the orthotropic axes for an orthotropic material and let
the (x,y) plane be a plane of symmetry.
 Under the coordinate transformation called a
reflection with respect to the (x,y) plane, the elastic coefficients, Cij, remain
invariant.
 The direction cosines for this transformation are defined by,

(33)
 Using stress and strain transformation equations, for reflection, we get

(34)

(35)
 HOOK’S LAW: ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL

Cij are constant under transformation of (33), first of (19) gives

(36)
Substitution of (34) and (35) into (36)

(37)
Comparing first of (19) and (37) gives C 15 = - C15 and C16 = -
C16 or C16 = C15 =0
 Orthotropic material
Similarly, considering other 5 equations of (19) (constants strike off by red
line are zero)

(38)

Coefficients for a material whose elastic properties are invariant under

reflection wrt (x,y) plane ( for material which possesses a plane of elastic
symmetry
 Orthotropic material
• A general orthotropic material has 2 additional orthogonal planes of symmetry,
(x, z),(y, z), where material properties are independent of direction within each
plane.
• Examples: Certain engineering materials like 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites,
piezoelectric materials (e.g. Rochelle salt)
• Most general orthotropic material require 9 independent variables (i.e. elastic
constants) in their constitutive matrices.

(39) (40)
Orthotropic material

FIBRE COMPOSITES
 Orthotropic material

The 9 elastic constants in orthotropic constitutive equations are comprised of

• 3 Young's modulii Ex, Ey, Ez,
• 3 Poisson's ratios yz, zx, xy,
• 3 Shear modulii Gyz, Gzx, Gxy.

Note that, in orthotropic materials, there are no interaction between

the normal stresses sx, sy, sz and the shear strains eyz, ezx, exy
 Orthotropic material

(41)

- Poison ratio that characterises the strain in the y direction produced by the
stress in x direction
Due to symmetry of coefficients, (41) gives following identities

(42)
 Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material
Extensional strain in x direction due to

(a)

Extensional strain in y direction due to

(b)
 Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material
For combination of stresses (σxx, σyy )

(c)

Solving first two of eq (c)

(d)
 Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material

If the element is subjected to shear stress,

σxy then

Stress strain relationship is

 Plane Stress for Orthotropic Material

Principal axis of stress

Principal axis of Strain,

 Stress Strain Relationship of Fiber- Resin Lamina
A lamina is composed of unidirectional fibers and a resin matrix that bonds
the fibres.
Let f-volume fraction of fiber to total volume
R-resin, F-fiber
Stress Strain Relationship of Fiber- Resin Lamina
Stress-strain relations for fibers and resin :

Fibers and resin are bonded, so effective lamina strain is the

same in both
 Stress Strain Relationship of Fiber- Resin Lamina

In the y direction, the effective lamina strain, is proportional to the amount of

fiber per unit length in the y direction and the amount of resin per unit length
in the y direction

By equilibrium of lamina in x and y direction,

By solving,
Stress Strain Relationship of Fiber- Resin Lamina
Here,

Shear stress-strain relation

Relative displacement, b,
Stress Strain Relationship of Fiber- Resin Lamina
 Thermo-elasticity Equations

• Consider an unconstrained member made of an isotropic elastic material

in an arbitrary zero configuration.
• Let ΔT – small increase in temperature.
• All infinitesimal line elements in the volume undergo equal expansions
and maintain their initial directions.
• Strain components resulting from temperature change

(43)

• Let the member be subjected to forces that induces stresses

like , …at point 0 in the member
• Let … strain components at point 0 after application of forces.
 Thermo-elasticity Equations
• Change in Strain produced by the force is

ΔT may depend on the location of point 0 and time t.

ΔT = ΔT (x,y,z,t), (43) into (27)

(44)

(45)
 Thermo-elasticity Equations

Substituting strain components from (44) to (29)

(46)
 Thermoelasticity Equations

• Substituting (46) into (25 or 26)

• -2G-c ΔT +
 PROBLEM 1

Principal strains in a machine component at 3 different points are given

below . Find principal stresses at these points . Take E =200 GPa, poisson’s
ratio =0.29
Strain POINT 1 POINT 2 POINT 3
0.005 -0.003 0.008
0.011 0.002 -0.0075
0 0 0
 PROBLEM 2

A square plate of 1 m dimensions with Take E =200 GPa, poisson’s

ratio =0.29 has uniform thickness of 8 mm. This plate is subjected plane
stress condition. . Also find final dimensions of the plate.
 PROBLEM 3

A machine component is made of aluminum alloy 2024 T4 (Refer table

A.1) and subjected to following state of stress. =300 MPa, =200 MPa, .
Determine the state of strain. Find principal stresses as well.

Hint: use equation 3.30 and 3 D Mohr’s circle formula

 PROBLEM 4

For wood following are elastic constants, Ex= 15000 MPa, Ey = 1205 MPa,
Ez=760 MPa , Gxy = 1100 MPa, Gxz = 1040 Mpa, Gyz = 270 Mpa, . Applied
stresses are = 8MPa, = 7MPa, = 1MPa, = 1.8MPa, = 0
Find : strain components.

Hint: use equation 3.51 and 3.52

 PROBLEM 4

The fiber composite is made of glass fiber and epoxy resin. Properties of
fiber are E=72GPa, G=30 GPa, = 0.22
Properties of resin, E =35.2 GPa, G= 3.2 GPa , = 0.389, f=0.67
a. Find Coefficients Cij
b. Given ,
c. Find principal stresses and orientation of principal axes