Data Collection

• 4.6. Data collection and tools

• 4.7. Construction of research instruments
• 4.8. Data analysis
Methods of Data Collection
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/plan chalked out.
 The two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the
first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since
primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary
data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.
Collection of Primary Data
Collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches.
Important ones are:
(i) Observation method,
(ii) Interview method,
(iii) Questionnaires & Schedules
(iv) Focus Group Discussion
(v) Documents (content analysis)
 1. Observation Method
• The observation method is common in in behavioural sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
• Careful & accurate observation eliminates subjective bias.
• It allows to collect data on currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
• This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond
and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents.
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind
things like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded?
 Types of Observation:
 Structured observation and Unstructured observation
 Participant observation and Non-participant observation.
 Controlled and Uncontrolled observation
 Natural and un-natural observation
 Systematic and unsystematic observation
Limitations
 It is an expensive method.
 Same data may not be collected again and again.
 Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
 Explore other limitations!
 2. The Interview Method
• It involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
• This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
• Types of Interviews:
– Formal interview or structured interview
– Informal interview or unstructured interview
– Semi structured interview
Structured interviews
• Used frequently in quantitative research.
• The interviewer asks a series of questions and ticks boxes the
response & highly structured.
• It is face-to-face or over the telephone, sometimes with the aid of
lap-top computers.
• They use a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording.
Unstructured interviews
• The participant is free to talk about what he or she deems
important, with little directional influence from the researcher.
• Can only be used for qualitative research.
• As the researcher tries to ask as few questions as possible.
• In this type some people find it very difficult to remain quiet while
another person talks, sometimes for hours on end.
• Researchers need to remain alert, recognising important
information and probing for more detail.
• It can produce a great deal of data which, difficult to analyse.
Semi-structured interviews
• In this type of interview, the researcher wants to know specific
information which can be compared and contrasted with
information gained in other interviews.
• In this type the same questions need to be asked in each interview.
• It is flexible so that other important information can still arise.
• The researcher produces an interview schedule to ensure continuity.
• In a grounded theory study, the schedule is updated and revised
after each interview to include more topics which have arisen as a
result of the previous interview.
METHODS OF RECORDING
• Tape-recorder
• Pen and paper/notes taking
• Video recording
• Box ticking
 Weaknesses of the interview method.
• It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely
spread geographical sample is taken.
• There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as
that of the respondent;
• Certain types of respondents such as important officials or
executives or people in high income groups may not be easily
approachable.
• This method is relatively more-time-consuming
• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give
imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
• Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
 3. Questionnaires

• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case

of big enquiries.
• A questionnaire is administered to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
• The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to
respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and
business surveys.
• Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
• Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
There are three basic types of questionnaire
• Closed-ended (fixed response)
• Open-ended (free-response)
• Combination of both.
Closed-ended questionnaires
• This type of questionnaire is used to generate statistics in
quantitative research.
• As these questionnaires follow a set format, and as most can be
scanned straight into a computer for ease of analysis, greater
numbers can be produced.
• The questions are forced choice, yes/no, rating scales etc
Open-ended questionnaires
• Are used in qualitative research, although some researchers will
quantify the answers during the analysis stage.
• The questionnaire contains a blank section for the respondent to
write in an answer.
• Open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people
think about a problem under study.
• As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is
more complex.
Combination of both
• It is possible to find out how many people use a service and what
they think about that service on the same form.
• Many questionnaires begin with a series of closed questions, with
boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of
open-questions for more detailed response.
 The main demerits:
• Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to
no-response is often indeterminate.
• It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
• The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
• There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
• There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions
is difficult
• It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
• This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Main aspects of a questionnaire:
•(1) General form: it can either be structured or unstructured
questionnaire.
•Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions.
•Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions
in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated
alternatives.
(2) Question sequence: A proper Sequence of questions reduces
considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood.
•The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving,
•The first few questions are particularly important because they are
likely to influence the attitude of the respondent
Essentials of a good questionnaire:
– questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e.,
the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.
– Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from
easy to more difficult questions.
– Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end;
– Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.
– Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple
choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
– Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be
avoided.
– Adequate space for answers should be provided in the
questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.
SUMMARY
•Think about how you're going lo analyse your survey prior lo
constructing your questionnaire.
•Decide whether you "re interested in behaviour, beliefs, attitudes or
characteristics or a combination of the above.
•Make sure you have made the right decisions concerning open-ended
questions, closed-ended questions or a combination of both.
•Decide whether your questionnaire is lo be self-administered or
interviewer administered.
•Think about how you intend to distribute your questionnaire, e.g. by
hand, through the post or via the internet.
•Construct the questionnaire adhering to the checklist produced
above.
•Include a covering letter with information about who the research is
for and what will happen to the results.
4. FOCUS GROUPS
• Focus groups may be called discussion groups or group
interviews.
• A number of people are asked to come together in a group to
discuss a certain issue.
• The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator who introduces
the topic, asks specific questions, controls digressions and stops
break-away conversations.
• She makes sure that no one person dominates the discussion whilst
trying to ensure that each of the participants makes a contribution.
• Focus groups may be video-recorded or tape-recorded.
How to Conduct Focus Groups
•A focus group is where a number of people are asked to come
together in order to discuss a certain issue for the purpose of research.
•They are popular within the fields of educational research.
•The focus group is facilitated by a moderator who asks questions,
probes for more details and tries to ensure that everyone has an input
and that no one person dominates the discussion.
•The best way to become a successful moderator is through
experience and practice and be a part of FGD.
•You can go for pilot focus group, either with friends or actual
research participants.
•You might find it useful to video tape this focus group so that you
can assess your body language, see how you deal with awkward
situations, analyse how you ask questions, and so on.
Finishing the focus group
•When you have finished your focus group, thank the participants for
taking part and leave a contact name and number in case they wish to
follow up any of the issues that have been raised during the
discussion.
•It's good practice to provide a copy of the report to anybody who
wants one.
CHOOSING A VENUE
•It is extremely important to make sure you choose the right venue
for your focus group as this will affect participation levels, the level
of discussion and the standard of recording.
•You should ask yourself the following questions when considering
a venue:
• Is the venue accessible in terms of physical access for those
with mobility difficulties?
• Is the building easy to find and the room easy to locate?
• Is free parking available close by?
• Is it accessible by public transport?
• Is the room big enough to accommodate the number of people
you intend to recruit?
• Are there enough chairs and are they comfortable?
• Is there anything which could distract the participants?
SUMMARY
•Find a suitable venue and cheek availability. Is it accessible
physically and mentally?
•Visit the venue and check it is free from background noises,
distractions and interruptions.
•Obtain appropriate recording equipment and practise.
•Try your recording equipment in the venue to test suitability.
•Contact participants and check availability for time and place
•Arrive at the venue early and arrange the seating in a way which will
suit the group.
•Test the recording equipment from each seat.
• Lay out refreshments away from the recorder.
• Greet participants with drinks and nibbles.
• Introduce yourself; explain what the group is about, what is
expected of the participants, who the research is for and what will
happen to the results.
• Negotiate a discussion length and ask that no one leaves early.
• Discuss issues of confidentiality, anonymity and personal
disclosure,
• Start recorder and begin with general, easy to answer questions.
• Listen and take notes.
• Ask questions and probe for more detail.
• Wind up within negotiated time, unless participants wish to
continue.
• Thank participants and give them your name and contact number in
case they wish to follow up any of the issues with you.
• Send a summary report to anyone interested.
5. Case Study Method
• Meaning: The case study method is a very popular form of
qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete
observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an
institution, a cultural group or even the entire community.
• It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.
• The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a
limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.
• The case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration.
• The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that
account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality.
Characteristics: The important characteristics of the case study
method are as under:
• Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit-or
more of such units for his study purpose.
• Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in
minute details.
• In the context of this method we make complete study of the social
unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand
the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an
integrated totality.
• Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not
quantitative.
• In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the
mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.
• Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning
unit is studied directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.
Advantages: There are several advantages:
(i) Being an exhaustive study of a social unit,
(ii) This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social
unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its
surrounding environment
(iii) It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which; may be
helpful in testing them.
(iv) The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not
possible if we use either the observation method or the method of collecting
information through schedules.
(v) Information collected helps a lot to the researcher in the task of constructing the
appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough
knowledge of the concerning universe.
(vi) The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the
case study method depending upon the prevalent circumstances.
(vii) This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit because of
its emphasis of historical analysis. Besides, it is also a technique to suggest
measures for improvement in the context of the present environment of the
concerned social units.
(vii) It enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his
analyzing ability and skill.
Limitations:
(i) The subject under case study tells history in his own words,
logical concepts and units of scientific classification have to be
read into it or out of it by the investigator.
(ii) The danger of false generalization is always there in view of the
fact that no set rules are followed in collection of the information
and only few units are studied.
(iii) It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure.
(iv) The case data are often vitiated because the subject may write
what he thinks the investigator wants; and the greater the rapport,
the more subjective the whole process is.
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the
data which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.
When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into
various sources from where he can obtain them.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually
published data are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state and local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international
bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
(c) technical and trade journals:
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with
business and industry, banks, stock exchanges etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists etc. in
different fields, and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources
of published information.
The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in
diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and
also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade
associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals
and organizations.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.
• He must make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the
secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the
context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.
The researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:
• Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out
such things about the said data:
– (a) Who collected the data?
– (b) What were the sources of data?
– (c) Were they collected by using proper methods?
– (d) At what time were they collected?
– (e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
– (/) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?
• Suitability of data: The data that are-Suitable for one enquiry may
not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry.
• The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will
remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.
• Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is
found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will
be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the
researcher.
Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection
The researcher must judiciously select the method/methods for his
own study, keeping in view the following factors:

• Nature, scope and object of enquiry:

• Availability of funds:
• Time factor:
• Precision required: