ELECTRONICS II

UNIT III
PART I - Computer Fundamentals

 Introduction to computers
 Characteristics of computers
 Block diagram of computer
 Types of computers
 Data organization- drives, files, directories,
types of memory (primary and secondary)-
RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, secondary
storage devices ( FD, CD, HD, Pen drive )
 I/O devices.
 REFERENCES

• Books:

1) Computer Fundamentals
-Pradeep K. Sinha
-Priti Sinha
2) Computing Fundamentals and C programming
-E. Balagurusamy
 WHAT IS COMPUTER?

-It is an electronic device for storing and processing

data, typically in binary form, according to
instructions given to it in a variable program.

-A computer is a device that accepts information(in

the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for
some result based on a program or sequence of
instructions on how the data is to be processed.

-The first mechanical computer, created by Charles

Babbage in 1822.
 COMPUTER AS “DATA PROCESSOR”

-A computer is also called as data processor because

it can store, process and retrieve data whenever
desired.
-Data is raw material used as input to data
processing and information is processed data
obtained as output.

Figure 1. A Computer as “data processor”

Figure 2– Computer System at Glance
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

1) AUTOMATIC: Work on a problem without

human intervention

2) SPEED: Very fast device. Can perform

several billion(109) even trillion(1012)
arithmetic operations per second

3) ACCURACY: High accuracy (works on GIGO)

  Characteristics of Computers Cont…

4) DILIGENCE: Can work continuously without

getting tired i.e. free from monotony, lack of
concentration, tiredness

5) Versatility: Able to perform wide variety of

tasks
6) Power of remembering: Can store & recall
any amount of information at any time with the
help of storage devices
  Characteristics of Computers Cont…

7) No I.Q. : Can not take its own

decisions, has to be instructed what to
do & in what sequence

8) No feelings: As a machine devoid of

emotions & feelings. Can not make
judgments based on feelings & instincts
Introduction to computers

 First Generation Computers: Vacuum

tubes
 Second Generation Computers:
Transistors
 Third Generation Computers: IC’s
 Fourth Generation Computers: VLSI
 Fifth Generation Computers: ULSI,
Artificial Intelligence, etc…
Figure – Basic organization of computer system
  Basic Computer Organization
 Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

1) Inputting- The process of entering data and instructions into the

computer system.

2) Storing- Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for

initial or additional processing whenever required

  Five Basic Operations of a
Computer System
3) Processing- Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply etc.) or
logical operations (Comparisons like equal to, less than) on data to convert them
into useful
information.
4) Outputting-The process of producing useful information or results for the user
such as a printed report or visual display.
5) Controlling -Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above
operations are performed
INPUT UNIT

It accepts (reads)instructions & data from

user
Input interfaces converts these instructions
& data in computer acceptable form
It supplies converted instructions & data to
the storage unit for storage & further
processing
OUTPUT UNIT

It produces results, which are in coded

form
Output interfaces converts these
coded results to human
acceptable(readable) form
It supplies converted result to user
STORAGE UNIT
 It holds The Data & Instructions
required for processing
 Intermediate results of processing
 Final results of processing, before
the system releases them to an o/p unit
 Types of Storage

 The broad categories of storage are :

1) Primary Storage

2) Secondary Storage
Types of Storage Cont…
1) Primary Storage(Main Memory)(RAM)
- Made up of semiconductor devices
- Used to hold running program instructions
- Used to hold data, intermediate results and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
- Fast in operation(CPU can access directly)
- Small capacity
- Expensive
- Volatile
Types of Storage Cont…
2) Secondary Storage(Hard Disk)
- Used to hold stored program instructions
- Used to hold data and information of stored job
- Slower than primary storage
- Large Capacity
- Cheaper than primary storage
- Retains data even without power/Non volatile
 ALU

 ALU processes the data

 Intermediate & main results are again
transferred to RAM
 Arithmetic Operation-Add, Subtract, multiply,
divide
 Logic operations- <>=
 CONTROL UNIT

 Does not perform any actual processing of jobs, but

acts as a central nervous system for components of
computer systems.

 Manages & coordinates the operations of all other

components
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

 Brain of computer
 CU+ALU
 Performs all major calculations & comparisons
 Activates & controls the operations of other units of the
computer system
Types of Computers
Based on their mode of use, computers are classified as :
1) Notebook Computers (Laptops)
2) Personal Computers (PCs)
3) Workstations
4) Mainframe Systems
5) Supercomputers
6) Client and Server computers
7) Handheld computers
 1) Notebook Computers

 Portable computers mainly meant for use by

people who need computing resource wherever
they go.
 Approximately, 15’’ notebook can easily fit
inside briefcase.
 Weigh around 2 kg only.
 Designed to operate with chargeable batteries
 Continued……
 Each part of laptop is designed to use little power and remain
suspended if not used

Figure 3 –Notebook Specifications

2) Personal Computers (PCs)

 Non-Portable, general-purpose computer that fits

on a normal size office table
 Designed to meet personal computing needs of
individuals
 Generally used by one person at time, supports
multitasking
2) Personal Computers (PCs)

 Two common models of PCs are :

1) Desktop model

2) Tower model
Common PC Models

Figure – PC Models
3) Workstations

 Powerful desktop computers designed to meet the

computing needs of engineers, architects and other
professionals
 Provides greater processing power, large storage
and better graphics display facility than PCs.
 Generally run the UNIX operating system or a
variation of it.
 Operating system is generally designed to support
multiuser environment.
3) Workstations

 Commonly used for

 computer–aided design,
 multimedia applications,
 simulation of complex scientific and engineering
problems
Figure 5 – Workstation Computers
4) Mainframe Systems

 Mainly used for large organizations as banks, insurance

companies, hospitals, railways etc.
 Used for data handling and information processing
requirements
 Used in such environments where a large number of users
need to share common computing facility
 Oriented to input/output-bound applications
Continued….

 Typically consist of a host computer, front end

computer, back-end computer, console terminals,
magnetic disk drives, tape drives, magnetic tape
library, user terminals, printers and plotters.
 Typical mainframe system looks like a row of large
file cabinets and needs large room
Mainframe Systems
5) Supercomputers

 Most powerful and most expensive computers

available at a given time.

 Primarily used for processing complex scientific

applications that requires enormous processing

power
 5) Supercomputers
 Well known supercomputer applications include:
1) Analysis of large volume of seismic data
2) Simulation of airflow around an aircraft
3) Crash simulation of the design of an automobile
4) Solving complex structure engineering problems
5) Weather forecasting
6) Creating special effects for movies and TV programs
7) Supports Multi-programming
Continued….

 Use Multiprocessing and parallel processing technologies to

solve complex problems faster
 Modern supercomputers employ hundreds of processors and
are also known as massively parallel processors

Figure –C-DAC’s PARAM Yuva supercomputer

Supercomputer
5) Client-Server Computers

 Client–Server computing environment has multiple

clients, one/more servers, and a network

What is a Client?

Client is a PC/Workstation with user friendly interface that run client

processes that send service request to the server.

5) Client-Server Computers

 What is a Server?

Server is generally a relatively large computer that

manages a shared resource and provides a set of shared user services

to the clients.

-Server runs the server process that services client requests for use of

managed resources
 Continued….

 Network may be a single LAN or WAN or an Internet.

 Computers and operating systems of a client and server
may be different
 Concept of client and server computers is purely role
based and may change dynamically as the role of
computer changes
Figure – Client-Server Computing Environment
 6) Handheld Computers
 Size, Weight and design are such that it can be
used
comfortably by holding in hand
 Types of Handheld are :
1) Tablet PC - Miniaturized laptop with light
weight
screen flip, handwriting and voice recognition
Continued….
2) PDA(personal digital assistant)/Pocket PC-
Acts as PIM (Personal information manager)device with
LCD touch screen, pen for handwriting recognition, PC
based synchronization and optionally mobile phone
services
3) Smartphone- Fully functional mobile phone with
computing power, voice centric, have touch screen and
smaller than PDA
Continued….
 Data organization

• A file is a named collection of related data

• A file system is the logical view that an operating
system provides so that users can manage
information as a collection of files
• A file system is often organized by grouping files
into directories(folders)
 File Types
• Most files, contain a specific type of information
– For example, a file may contain a Java program, a
JPEG image, or an MP3 audio clip
• The kind of information contained in a document is
called the file type
– Most operating systems recognize a list of specific
file types
 File Types
• File names are often
separated, usually by a
period, into two parts
– Main name
– File extension
• The file extension
indicates the type of
Figure Some common file types the file
and their extensions
 File Operations
• Create a file • Append data to the
• Delete a file end of a file
• Open a file • Truncate a file (delete
• Close a file its contents)
• Read data from a file • Rename a file
• Write data to a file • Copy a file

11-49
MOTHERBOARD
 Drive
• The C drive (C:) is the main hard disk partition
which contains the operating system and the related
system files.
• In Windows operating systems, the C drive as
represented as “C:\”, the backlash representing the
root directory of the drive.
• It is the primary hard drive of the system and is
used for storing the operating system, system files
and other applications and their related files.
11-51
Secondary storage devices
CD(Compact Disk)
o A compact disc is a portable storage medium
o It can be used to record, store and play back audio,
video and other data in digital form.
o CDs can store software programs so that you may
load them onto your computer.
o They save files for backup or transfer to another
computer.
 Secondary storage devices

CD(Compact Disk)
o A standard compact disc measures 4.7 inches, or
120 millimeters (mm), across, is 1.2 mm thick,
weighs between 15 grams and 20 grams, and has a
capacity of 80 minutes of audio, or 650 megabytes
(MB) to 700 MB of data.
CD(Compact Disk)
o The standard CD is capable of holding 72 minutes
of music or 650 MB of data. An 80 minute CD is
capable of holding 700 MB of data.
o However, the most common storage media used
before the introduction of the CD was the 3.5" FD.
o However, the most common replacement for the
CD today is DVD. For larger storage, jump drives
are also a popular replacement to the CD.
 CD(Compact Disk)

CD later expanded to encompass:-

• Data storage (CD-ROM)
• Write once audio & data storage (CD-R)
• Rewritable Media (CD-RW)
CD(Compact Disk)

A. CD is an optical device. The data is retrieved by reader

using light beam(infrared laser).
B. To write data in CD , ink(die) is burned using high
power laser beam.
C. CD-RW any number of times using metal alloy.
D. DVD size 7 times more than CD.
E. In DVD, red laser is used to read data.
Pen Drive
A. It is a data storage device.
B. The pen drive is considered to be an improvement on
both FD & CD
C. The backbone of modern removable chip based
storage devices is a memory chip capable of multiple
read write cycle with high reliability, known as USB
flash drives.
D. Pen drives is the name given to a category of USB
flash drives which have a unique pen like shape with a
lot of additional features.
 Pen Drive

A. It is named so because of their size & shape.

B. Pen drives are inserted into the USB port of the
desktop & laptop computers.
C. It is very compact in size as compared to CDs &
DVDs.
D. Capacity- 32MB to 128GB
E. It is also referred to as a USB flash drive..
 RAM(Random Access Memory)
 Memory Types
 RAM(Random Access Memory)
o RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal
memory for storing data, program, and program
result.
o It is a read/write memory which stores data until
the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased.
o Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly.
o It is very expensive.
 RAM(Random Access Memory)
o RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch
off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used
with computers.
o RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the
amount of data it can hold.
o RAM is of two types -
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)
o The word static indicates that the memory
retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power
gets down due to volatile nature.
o SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and
no capacitors. Transistors do not require power
to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be
refreshed on a regular basis.
Static RAM (SRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)
Characteristic of Static RAM
o Long life compared to DRAM
o No need to refresh
o Faster
o Used as cache memory
o Large size
o Expensive
o High power consumption
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually
refreshed in order to maintain the data.
 This is done by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second.
 It is cheap and small.
 All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which
are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
o Short data lifetime
o Needs to be refreshed continuously
o Slower as compared to SRAM
o Used as RAM
o Smaller in size
o Less expensive
o Less power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Read Only Memory(ROM )
Read Only Memory(ROM )
o The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it.
o This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture.
o A ROM stores such instructions that are required to
start a computer.
Read Only Memory(ROM )
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
o PROM is read-only memory that can be modified
only once by a user.
o The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program.
o Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which
are burnt open during programming.
o It can be programmed only once and is not
erasable.
Read Only Memory(ROM )
o EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory)
o EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light
for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
o During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an
insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than
10 years because the charge has no leakage path.
o For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid).
Read Only Memory(ROM )
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read
Only Memory)
o EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically.
o It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
(millisecond).
o In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed.
o EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing
the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Read Only Memory(ROM )
Advantages of ROM
o Non-volatile in nature
o Cheaper than RAMs
o Easy to test
o More reliable than RAMs
o Static and do not require refreshing
o Contents are always known and can be verified
 Input Devices
o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Joy Stick
o Scanner
o Microphone
o Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
o Bar Code Reader
o Optical Card Reader (OCR)
o Light Pen
o Track Ball
Keyboard

o Input device which helps to input data to

the computer.
o There are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions.
o Now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and
Internet.
MOUSE

o Mouse is the most popular pointing

device.
o It is a very famous cursor-control
device having a small palm size box
with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse
and sends corresponding signals to
the CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed.
MOUSE

o Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right

button and a wheel is present between the buttons.

o A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor

on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the

computer.
JOYSTICK

o Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used

to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
o It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both
lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket.
o The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
o The function of the joystick is similar to that of
a mouse.
o It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.
LIGHT PEN

o Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen.

o It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen.
o It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube.
o When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and the pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.
TRACK BALL

o Track ball is an input device that is mostly

used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse.
o This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.
o Since the whole device is not moved, a track
ball requires less space than a mouse.
o A track ball comes in various shapes like a
ball, a button, or a square.
SCANNER

o Scanner is an input device, which works

more like a photocopy machine.
o It is used when some information is
available on paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation.
MICROPHONE

o Microphone is an input device to input

sound that is then stored in a digital
form.
o The microphone is used for various
applications such as adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
o MICR input device is generally used in
banks as there are large number of cheques to
be processed every day.
o The bank's code number and cheque number
are printed on the cheques with a special type
of ink that contains particles of magnetic
material that are machine readable.
o This reading process is called Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR).
o The main advantages of MICR is that it is
fast and less error prone.
Bar Code Reader
o Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading
bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines).
o Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books, etc.
o It may be a handheld scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner.
o Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image,
converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer that the bar code
reader is connected to.
Optical Card Reader (OCR)

o OMR(optical mark recognition) is a special

type of optical scanner used to recognize the
type of mark made by pen or pencil.
o It is used where one out of a few alternatives
is to be selected and marked.
o It is specially used for checking the answer
sheets of examinations having multiple
choice questions.
Output Devices

o Monitor
o Printer
o Speaker
MONITOR

 Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU),

are the main output device of a computer.
 It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form.
 The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of
pixels.
 There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
o Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
o Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
o The CRT display is made up of small picture
elements called pixels.
o The smaller the pixels, the better the image
clarity or resolution.
o Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.
o There are some disadvantages of CRT:
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
o The flat-panel display that have reduced
volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT.
o You can hang them on walls or wear them
on your wrists.
o Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.
Printer

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information

on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the

ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
Dot Matrix Printer
o Most popular printers because of their ease
of printing and economical price.
o Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Non-impact Printers
o Print the characters without using the ribbon.
o These printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are
also called as Page Printers.
o These printers are of two types -
Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a
page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character
size
Laser Printers
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of
a document in a single printing
Inkjet printers
o Inkjet printers are non-impact character
printers They print characters by spraying
small drops of ink onto paper.
o High quality output with presentable
features.
o They make less noise because no
hammering is done
o Color printing is also possible.
o Some models can produce multiple copies
of printing also.
Inkjet printers
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer