Vocabulary

• Centromere: area where sister chromatids are held together.

• Chromatid: each of a pair of identical DNA molecules after DNA
replication; they are joined at the centromere.
• Spindle fibers: fibers that attach to chromosomes and move the
chromosomes by pulling homologous chromosomes in opposite
directions and pushing the poles apart.
 Vocabulary
• Centrioles: one of a pair of cellular organelles that occur especially in animals, are
adjacent to the nucleus, function in the formation of the spindle apparatus during cell
division and consist of a cylinder with nine microtubules arranged peripherally in a circle.
• Microtubules: any of the minute tubules in eukaryotic cytoplasm that are composed of the
protein tubulin and form an important component of the cytoskeleton, mitotic spindle,
cilia, and flagella.
• Kinetochores: a specialized structure on the centromere to which the microtubular spindle
fibers attach during mitosis and meiosis
STAGES OF
THE CELL
CYCLE
MITOSIS
 THREE MAJOR STAGES
1. Interphase
2. Mitotic Phase or Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis or Cell Division
Mitosis
• Division of somatic cells (non-
reproductive cells) in eukaryotic organisms.
• A single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells.
• Daughter cells have same # of
chromosomes as does parent cell.
Examples:
• Human = 46 chromosomes
• Human skin cell = 46 chromosomes
• Human heart cell = 46 chromosomes
• Human muscle cell = 46 chromosomes
 Fruit fly = 8 chromosomes
 Fruit fly skin cell = 8 chromosomes
 Fruit fly heart cell = 8 chromosomes
 Fruit fly muscle cell = 8 chromosomes
INTERPHASE
STAGES OF INTERPHASE
1.Gap 1 (G1) stage
2.Synthesis (S) stage
3.Gap 2 (G2) stage
 Three Major Checkpoints

1. Gap 1 (G1) stages,

2. Gap 2 (G2) stages, and
3. M phases
1. Gap 1(G1) Stage
• The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
• The cell increases in mass and /or size and organelles.
• The length of the G1 stage is responsible for the
difference between fast-dividing cells and slowly-
dividing cells.
 1. Gap 1(G1) Stage
• The cell can only move to the next phase, S
after synthesizing enough ribosomes.
• As the phase is almost done, the mitochondria
of the cell fuse into a network of
mitochondria for effective energy production
for cell processes.
• If a cell doesnt get the go-ahead cue, it enters
the G0.
Cell Division Control
• DNA controls all cell activities
including cell division
• Some cells lose their ability to
control their rate of cell division –
the DNA of these cells has become
damaged or changed (mutated)
• These super-dividing cells form
masses called tumors
• Benign tumors are not cancerous
– these cells do not spread to
other parts of the body
• Malignant tumors are cancerous
– these cells break loose and can
invade and destroy healthy
tissue in other parts of the body
(called metastasis)
• Cancer is not just one
disease, but many
diseases – over 100
different types of
cancers
 2. Synthesis (S) Stage
• Replication of cellular DNA.
• very crucial part of interphase
• after the DNA synthesis, the cell
has twice as many chromosomes
as before
• it is now ready to move to the G2
 3. Gap 2(G2) Stage
• The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S
phase has been successfully completed.
• The cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes
proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation, such as
kinase and histones, including the microtubules.
• The cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the
mitotic phase.
• There may be additional cell growth during G2
The Metaphase Checkpoint
• Ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the
mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
• Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the sister
chromatids are most tightly connected.
 Centromere and Kinetochore

• Centromere is constricted region of

the chromosomes that holds the
sister chromatids together, the site
where kinetochore forms.
• Kinetochore is a complex region
containing structure to which
microtubules attach.
cyclin
The activating molecule of kinases
Because of this requirement, these kinases are called
cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs.
Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases
of the Cell Cycle.
 Kinase
• A protein which activates or deactivates another protein.
• Protein that gives the 'go-ahead' signals at the G1 and G2
checkpoints.
• The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be
activated.
Stages Of Mitosis
 M Phase
1.Mitosis
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
2. Cytokinesis
 Mitosis
• (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divides to produce two new nuclei.
• Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each
other and to the parental cell from which they came.
• Mitosis also a means of asexual reproduction in some organisms, e.g., algae
and protozoans.
• Though cellular mitotic activity, wounds heals, cells and tissue.
Prophase
• Nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate and spindle
forms at opposite poles of the cell.
• Chromatid fibers become coiled into chromosomes
with each chromosome having two joined at a
centromere.
• The centrioles then move to opposite ends to form
the mitotic spindle in the cytoplasm.
• Mitotic spindle initially appears as a structure called
asters.
 Prometaphase

• Nuclear envelope disintegrates.

• Now the microtubules are allowed to
extend from the centromere to the
chromosome.
• The microtubules attach to the
kinetochores which allow the cell to
move the chromosome around.
 Metaphase

• Chromosomes become arranged so that their

centromeres become aligned in one place, halfway
between the two spindle poles.
• The long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees
to the spindle axis.
• The plane of alignment is called the metaphase
plate.
• Two pairs of centrioles align at opposite poles.
 Anaphase

• The centromeres in each distinct

chromosome start to move apart.
• The separation of sister chromatids at
their junction point at the centromere.
• The daughter chromosomes then move
toward the poles.
Telophase
• Daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the
poles.
• The two sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled
into two groups at opposite ends of the cell.
• The chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended
form during interphase.
• A nuclear membrane then forms around each
chromosome group and the spindle microtubules
disappear.
• Soon, the nucleolus reforms.
 Cytokinesis
• The division of the cytoplasm.
• Each newly-formed cell
contains one of the two nuclei
formed during mitosis.
• Both mitosis and cytokinesis
last for around one to two
hours.
Functions of Mitosis

The following are the two important functions of

mitosis:
1.Mitosis helps in the development of an organism.
In single-celled organisms, mitosis is the process
of asexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction

• Many single-celled organisms

reproduce by splitting, budding.
• Some multicellular organisms can
reproduce asexually, produce
clones (offspring genetically
identical to parent).
Functions of Mitosis
2. Mitosis helps in the replacement of
damaged tissues. The cells near the
damaged cells begin mitosis when
they do not sense the neighboring
cells. The dividing cells reach each
other and cover the damaged cells.
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-divi
sion/hs-the-cell-cycle-and-mitosis/a/hs-the-cell-cycle-and-mitosis-review#:~:text=Interph
ase%20is%20the%20longest%20part,M)%20phase%20and%20the%20next
.
• https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/
• https://microbenotes.com/interphase/
• https://bio1220.biosci.gatech.edu/sex-01/2-01-what-is-sex/