Aerodynamics

Lecture 2
Prof. Jaime Alberto Escobar G.
Faculty of Engineering
Aerodynamics
AIRFOIL
S
The study of the flow around a wing is usually divided in two parts of
aerodynamics:
1. Study of the flow around an airfoil. (a section of the wing)
2. The modifications required to extend the properties of the airfoil to the finite
wing.

03/05/2024 Lecture 2 Page 2 of 21

Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
Airfoil in ideal flow:

and far from the

1
airfoil (Flight speed)

Stagnation point (V = 0;
2
P = PT)

Highest velocity value,

3
min static pressure.

Stagnation point (V = 0;
4
P = PT)

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case:

Laminar

Reynolds Number

Turbulent

(Click on the image to see a video)

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case (Cont’d):

Fluid’s resistance
to accelerate

Internal “friction” of
the flow

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case (Cont’d):

Shear force or skin friction

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case (Cont’d):

Surface roughness

Transition

Pressure gradient

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case (Cont’d):

Favorable pressure Adverse pressure

gradient gradient

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Aerodynamics
AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
The real flow case (Cont’d):

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Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC
FORCES
Forces:
• Lift.
• Drag.
• Moment.

Coefficients:

𝐿′
• Lift coefficient: 𝐶𝑙=
𝑞𝑐
• Center of pressure:
𝐷′
• Drag coefficient: 𝐶𝑑= 𝑀 ′ 𝐿𝐸
𝑞𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑝 = (For small angle of
𝐿′ attack, a )

𝑀 ′ • Aerodynamic Center: Location where the

• Moment coefficient: 𝐶 𝑚 = 2
𝑞𝑐 moment is constant with angle of attack (a).

03/05/2024 Lecture 2 Page 10 of 21

Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
(Cont’d) Pu  Pu ( su )
dsu 
𝑑𝑁 ′ 𝑢=− 𝑃 𝑢 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 −𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜃
𝜏 𝑢 =𝜏 𝑢 ( 𝑠 𝑢 )
𝑑𝑁 ′ 𝑙= 𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 −𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 su
sl 𝜃
𝑑𝐴′ 𝑢 =− 𝑃 𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Pl  Pl ( sl )
𝑑𝐴′ 𝑙 =𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝜏 𝑙 =𝜏 𝑙 ( 𝑠𝑙 )

𝑇𝐸 𝑇𝐸
𝑁 =− ∫ ( 𝑃 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃+𝜏 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 + ∫ ( 𝑃 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 −𝜏 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑙
′

𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐸
𝑇𝐸 𝑇𝐸
𝐴 = ∫ ( − 𝑃 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃+𝜏 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ ( 𝑃 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑙
′

𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐸

𝑁 𝑁 𝐴 𝐴
𝐶𝑛= = 𝐶𝑎 = =
𝑞𝑐 0.5 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝑐 𝑞𝑐 0.5 𝑉 2 𝜌 𝑐

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Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
(Cont’d)
From the figure:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥=𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃= 𝑑𝑦=− 𝑑𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃=−
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Substituting:
𝑐 𝑐
𝑁 =−∫ ( 𝑃𝑢 𝑑𝑥 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 −𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑠𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 +∫ ( 𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 +𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑙
′

0 0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑁 =∫ ( 𝑃 𝑙 − 𝑃𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑥 +∫ ( 𝜏 𝑢 +𝜏 𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑦
′
∫ ( 𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 +𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑙 )
0 0 0

( ) ( )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑁′ 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑙
=∫ − 𝑑𝑥 +∫ 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑞𝑐 0 𝑞𝑐 𝑞𝑐 0 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥

( ) ( )
𝑐 𝑐
1 𝑃𝑙 − 𝑃∞ + 𝑃∞ 𝑃𝑢 − 𝑃∞+ 𝑃∞ 1 𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑙
𝐶𝑛= ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ + 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 0 𝑞 𝑞 𝑐 0 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥

( )
𝑐 𝑐
1 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑙
𝐶 𝑛 = ∫ ( 𝐶𝑝 𝑙 − 𝐶𝑝 𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐶𝑓 𝑢 + 𝐶𝑓 𝑙 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 0 𝑐 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

03/05/2024 Lecture 2 Page 12 of 21

Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
(Cont’d)
𝑐 𝑐
𝐴 =∫ ( 𝑃𝑢 𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 +𝜏 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑢 +∫ ( − 𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 +𝜏 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 / 𝑑𝑠 𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝑙
′

0 0
𝑐 𝑐
𝐴 =∫ ( 𝑃𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 / 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑙 / 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 +∫ ( 𝜏 𝑢 +𝜏 𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥
′

0 0

[( )( ) ( )( )] ( )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑃𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝑃𝑙 𝑑𝑦 𝑙 𝜏𝑢 𝜏𝑙
𝐴 =∫
′
− 𝑑𝑥+∫ + 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑞𝑐 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑞𝑐 𝑞𝑐

∫[ ( ) ( )]
𝑐 𝑐
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑙 1
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝐶 𝑓𝑢 +𝐶 𝑓𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 0

Inviscid Flow
𝑐
1
𝐶 𝑛 = ∫ ( 𝐶𝑝 𝑙 − 𝐶𝑝 𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 0

[ ( ) ( )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑐
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑙
𝐶 𝑎 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝 𝑙
𝑐 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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Aerodynamics
NACA
AIRFOILS
Four digit series:

NACA X X X X
Maximum thickness (% of c)
Location of the maximum camber (% x 10 of c)
Maximum camber (% de c)

NACA 2 4 1 2
Maximum thickness: 12% (0.12c)
Location of the maximum camber: 40% (0.4c)
Maximum camber 2% (0.02c)

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Aerodynamics
NACA AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)

Four digit series – Camber line and thickness distribution

yt yc

• Thickness distribution for the four digit NACA airfoils:

𝑡
± 𝑦= ( 0.29690 𝑥 0.5 − 0.12600 𝑥 − 0.35160 𝑥 2 +0.28430 𝑥 3 − 0.10150 𝑥 4 )
0.20
t max
t
c
• Camber line for the four digit NACA airfoils:

( )[ ( ) ( ) ]
𝑦𝑐 𝑚 𝑥 𝑥
2 𝑥
= 2𝑝 − ≤𝑝 m: Maximum camber as
𝑐 𝑝
2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
a fraction of chord.
p: Chord wise position of
[ ][ ( ) ( )]
𝑦𝑐 𝑚 𝑥 𝑥
2
𝑥
= ( 1 − 2 𝑝 ) +2 𝑝 − ≥𝑝 the maximum camber.
𝑐 ( 1 − 𝑝 )2 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

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Aerodynamics
NACA AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
Five-digit series:
NACA X X X X X
Maximum thickness(% of c)
Divide by 2 to obtain the position of
maximum camber (% of c)
Multiply by 3/2 to obtain the design lift
coefficient in the tenths.

NACA 2 3 0 1 2
Maximum thickness: 12% (0.12c)
Maximum camber: 15% (0.15c)
Design lift coefficient: 0.3

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Aerodynamics
NACA AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
5-digit series – Camber line and thickness distribution.
• The thickness distribution for airfoils of the NACA five-digit series are the same
as those for airfoils of the NACA four-digit series (NACA Report 537)
Simple camber line Reflexed camber line
• An arc of a cubic parabola and a • Two cubic parabolas.
straight line. • Nose:
• Nose:
{[ ( ) ] }
3
𝑦𝑐 1 𝑥 𝑘2
( ) 𝑥
( )
𝑥

[( ) ( )]
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑘1 −𝑚 − ( 1− 𝑚 )3 −𝑚
3
+𝑚
3

( )
3 2
1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑐 6 𝑐 𝑘1 𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑘1 −3𝑚 +𝑚2 ( 3 − 𝑚 )
𝑐 6 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
• Tail:
• Tail:
{ [( ] }
3
𝑦𝑐 1 𝑘 𝑥
) 𝑘 3 𝑥
( )
𝑥
( )
[ ( )]
𝑦𝑐 1 𝑥 = 𝑘1 2 −𝑚 − 2 ( 1 −𝑚 ) −𝑚3 +𝑚 3
= 𝑘1 𝑚3 1 − 𝑐 6 𝑘1 𝑐 𝑘1 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 6 𝑐
𝑘1 3 ( 𝑚 − 𝑝 )2 −𝑚3
where: =
𝑘2 ( 1− 𝑚 )
3

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Aerodynamics
NACA AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)
Six-digit series:

NACA X X - X X X
Maximum thickness (% of c).
Design lift coefficient(in tenths).
Location of minimum pressure (1/10 of c).
Series designation.

NACA 6 5 - 2 1 0
Maximum thickness: 10% (0.10 c).
Design lift coefficient: 0.2
Location of min. pressure: 50% (0.5c)
Series designation: 6
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Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
AIRFOILS
Cl vs. a Cd vs. a
12 12

10 10

8 8

Cd
6
Cl

4 4

2
2
0
0
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
-10 -5 0 a 5(deg)10 15 20
a (deg)
Drag Polar L/D vs. a
12.00
12
10.00
10
8.00
8

L/D
6.00
6
Cl

4.00
4
2.00
2
0.00
0
-5 -3 -1 1 3 a 5(deg)
7 9 11 13 15
0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Cd0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15

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Aerodynamics
AERODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AIRFOILS
(Cont’d)

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Aerodynamics
COMPLEMENTARY
ACTIVITIES
1. From the textbook “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics”:
• Read section 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3.
2. From “Aerodynamics for Engineers”:
• Read sections 5.1., 5.2., and 5.3.
• Review examples 5.1. and 5.2.
3. Review:
• Paper NACA Report 460
• Paper NACA Report 824
• Paper NACA -TR-537
HOMEWOR
K
1. Read from the book Anderson, Jr., J.D., Computational Fluid Dynamics, Singapure,
McGraw Hill, 1995 Sections: 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8.
2. From the textbook “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics” Read sections: 2.9 and 2.11

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