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Database

RDBMS features include storing data in a row-column format, low data redundancy, supporting integrity constraints and security. ORACLE supports various data types including LOBs up to 4GB. It uses DDL, DML, DQL, DCL, and TCL to manage the database. NULL values are undefined, incomparable, and operations on them return NULL. Functions, joins, subqueries, and set operators allow retrieving related data. Integrity constraints enforce rules for data quality. Database objects include tables, views, sequences, indexes, and clusters.

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311 views26 pages

Database

RDBMS features include storing data in a row-column format, low data redundancy, supporting integrity constraints and security. ORACLE supports various data types including LOBs up to 4GB. It uses DDL, DML, DQL, DCL, and TCL to manage the database. NULL values are undefined, incomparable, and operations on them return NULL. Functions, joins, subqueries, and set operators allow retrieving related data. Integrity constraints enforce rules for data quality. Database objects include tables, views, sequences, indexes, and clusters.

Uploaded by

api-3817447
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Database Testing

Need for development of database


Disadvantage of file
– No data type support
– Retrieving and searching for data is
time consuming
– Memory won’t be allocated
dynamically
– Supports limited information
– Poor security
– Data can’t be shared by multiple users
and platforms
Models of database
HDBMS – main disadvantage is
data redundancy
NDBMS – if data is misplaced once,
it is difficult to find it
RDBMS
Features :
– Information represented in row
column format
– Low data redundancy
– No physical link is used
– Supports integrity constraints, Cudd’s
rules, null values
– Provides high security
– Data can be shared by multiple users
and platforms
ORACLE
Datatypes:
– Simple
– Composite
– LOB’S – Large objects,
max size is 4GB
– Diff types of LOB’S
• CLOB
• BLOB
• NCLOB
• BFILE
Supports
Five sub languages
– DDL - Used to change/remove DB
objects
– DML – Used to insert/modify/remove
rows/data
– DQL/DRL – Used to retrieve data in read only
mode
– DCL – Used to control flow of information
between users
– TCL – Used to save/cancel changes made by
DML statements
NULL
Undefined
Incomparable
Not equal to 0 or space
Any arithmetic operation with null
returns null values
Every RDBMS package supports
null values
It is not case sensitive
Special Operators
 IN – used to pick values one by one specified in the range
 Between – Inclusive operator
 LIKE – Used to search for pattern valid for character values
only.
– % - Represents more than one character
– _ - Represents single character

 IS NULL – Used to compare null values


FUNCTIONS
 Arithmetic function
 Character function
 Date Function
 Aggregate Function
 General Function
JOINS
Used to retrieve data from more
than one table at a time
Types of JOINS:
– Equi Join
– Non Equi / Cartesian Join
– Outer Join
– Self Join
SET Operator
Used to join the outputs of select
statements
Similar data type columns and
equal number of columns must be
specified in Select statement
Types:
– UNION ALL
– UNION
– INTERSECT
– MINUS
Sub Query or Nested Query

 Special operators used with sub queries


– EXISTS
– ANY or SOME
– ALL

CORRELATED SUB QUERY


Integrity Constraints
 A set of predefined rules can be applied on tables while
creating or after creation
 Automatically activated when DML statements are
performed on table
 Provides high security
 If rules are satisfied, transactions are accepted else
rejected
 Not Null
 Unique
 Default
 Check
 Primary Key
 Reference
Types:
– Column Constraint Syntax:
• Ex:- Create table Dept (deptno number(4)
primary key, dname varchar2(20) unique
not null, LOC varchar2(20) default ‘HYD’)

– Table Constraint Syntax:


• Ex:- Create table Dept (deptno number(4),
dname varchar2(20) not null, LOC
varchar2(20) default ‘HYD’, constraint
pk_deptno primary key (deptno))
Database Objects
Tables – Used to store and
manipulate data
Views and Synonyms – Used to
manipulate data
Sequence – Used to generate serial
no automatically
Index and Cluster – Used to
improve performance
VIEWS
It is a virtual component which
holds select statements in it’s
memory
It’ll not hold data
DESC, Select and DML statements
are allowed on views
Stored permanently in database in
table “user_views”
Can share with other users
Synonyms
 Hides original name and owner of database
objects
 DESC, Select and DML statements allowed
 It’ll not hold data
 Can share with other users

 TYPES:
– Private
– Public
Sequence
Used to generate numbers
automatically
Not related to any table
Uses two pseudo columns
– Nextval : Holds the next value to be
generated
– Currval: Hold the previous value
INDEX
 It is activated when indexed column is used in
“where” clause
 Used to improve performance while retrieving
or manipulating records
 Holds the physical address of data
 It is like a C pointer which locates the data

 TYPES :
– Composite Index
– Unique Index
CLUSTERS
Used to improve performance
while manipulating related tables
It holds the common column
available in two tables
Not allowed on existing tables
LOCKS
Used preserve data while
manipulating
TYPES :
– Implicit
– Explicit
• Row Level
• Table Level
– Share Mode
– Share Update Mode
– Exclusive Mode
PL / SQL
Supports variables and constants

Support executing more than one


statement as one unit

Supports conditional constructs

Supports error handling


CURSOR
It is temporary memory location
used to hold transactional data
It’ll not store data permanently
Valid in a PL/SQL block only
TYPES :
– Explicit Cursor
– Implicit Cursor
EXCEPTIONS
PL/SQL Errors
Used to trap an exception and
provide some solution
TYPES :
– Pre Defined
– User Defined
TRIGGERS
 A set of PL/SQL statements automatically
activated whenever and event raising statement
is executed
 Stored permanently in database
 Advantage :
– Used to impose user defined restrictions on table
– Provides high security while manipulating tables
Parts :
Triggering event : Indicates when to activate the trigger
Trigger Type : Trigger will activate n times if n rows are
manipulated by DML statements
 Trigger Restrictions: Indicates when to deactivate the
trigger
 Trigger Body : A set of PL/SQL statements

PACKAGES :
 It is a collection of related variables, cursors, procedures
and functions
 Advantages :
– Improves performance while accessing subprograms from
client
– Stored permanently
Parts :
– Package specifications : Holds component
declarations available in package
– Package Body : Holds the body of procedures and
functions

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