DISCRETE STRUCTURES AND THEORY OF LOGIC (DSTL)

KCS-303
Unit-4
Order of Group
Subgroup and Cyclic Group

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 Order of Group
Order of Group:
The number of elements in a group is called the order of the
group.
Example: The order of the multiplicative group
G = {1, –1, i, –i } is 4.
Finite and infinite groups.
If the order of a group G is finite, then G is called a finite group.
Otherwise it is an infinite group.

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 Order of Elements in a Group
Order of an element in a Group:
The order of an element a in the Group G is the smallest positive
integer n such that an = e. It is denoted by O(a).
Example: Find the order of every element of the multiplicative
group G = {1, , 2}.
Here we have
O(1) = 1
O() = 3
O(2) = 3

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 Order of Elements in a Group
Example: Find the order of every element of the multiplicative
group G = {1, –1, i, –i }.
Here we have
O(1) = 1, O(-1) = 2, O(i) = 4, O(-i) = 4
Example: Find the order of every element of the multiplicative
group G = {a, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6}. Here a6 = 1.
Here we have
O(a) = 6, O(a2) = 3, O(a3) = 2
O(a4) = 3, O(a5) = 6, O(a6) = 1

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 Cyclic Group
A group G is called a cyclic group, if for some a  G, every
element of G is of the form an, where n is some integer.
The element a is called the generator of G.
If G is a cyclic group generated by a, it is denoted by G = (a)
and the elements of G are in the form
……………. a-3, a-2, a-1, a0, a1, a2, a3, ………………
Example: The multiplicative group G = {1, -1, i, -i} is cyclic.
We can write G = {i, i2, i3, i4}
G is cyclic and i is the generator of G.
We can also write G = {-i, (-i)2, (-i)3, (-i)4},
 -i is also a generator of G

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 Example
Example: The multiplicative group {1, , 2} is cyclic.
The generators are  and 2
Q. Show that 1 and 5 are generators of the cyclic group (G, + 6).
Where G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Sol. We can see that
11 = 1 , 12 = 1 +6 1 = 2
13 = 1 +6 12 = 1 +6 2 = 3
14 = 1 +6 13 = 1 +6 3 = 4
15 = 1 +6 14 = 1 +6 4 = 5
16 = 1 +6 15 = 1 +6 5 = 0
Similarly we can check for 5. 6
 Properties
1. Every cyclic group is an abelian group.
2. If a is the generator of cyclic group G, then a-1 is also a
generator of G.
3. Every group of prime order is cyclic.
4. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

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 Properties
Theorem: Every cyclic group is an abelian group.
Proof: Let G be a cyclic group generated by a.
Let x, y be any two elements of G.
Then there exist integers r and s such that x = ar, y = as
Now xy = aras = ar+s = as+r = asar = yx
i.e. xy = yx for all x, y  G.
Therefore G is abelian group.

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 Properties
Theorem: Every group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof: Let G is a finite group whose order is a prime number p.
Since G is a group of prime order,
G must contain at least 2 elements. (As 2 is least positive prime).
There must exist an element a  G such that a  e. (e is identity)
Since a is not the identity element, therefore o(a)  2.
Let o(a) = m. If H is the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.
Then o(H) = o(a) = m.
By Lagrange’s theorem m must be a divisor of p.
But p is prime and m  2. Hence m = p.
 H = G. Since H is cyclic therefore G is cyclic and a is the
generator of G.
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 Subgroup
A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is a sub group of G, if
(H, *) is a group.
Example: The multiplicative group H1 = {1, -1} is a subgroup
of the multiplicative group G = {1, -1, i, -i}
Note: For any group {G, *}, {e, * } and (G, * ) are trivial sub
groups.
H2 = { 1 } is a trivial subgroup of G.
Theorem: A non empty sub set H of a group (G, *) is
a subgroup of G iff
1. a * b  H for all a, b  H
2. a-1  H for all a  H
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 Subgroup Contd..
Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a non
empty subset H of a group (G, *) to be a sub group is that
a  H, b  H  a * b-1  H
Proof:
Case1: Let (G, *) be a group and H is a subgroup of G
Let a, b  H  b-1  H ( since H is a
group)
 a * b-1  H. ( By closure property in H)
Case2: Let H be a non empty set of a group (G, *).
Let a * b-1  H  a, b  H
Now, a * a-1  H ( Taking b = a )
 eH i.e. identity exists in H.
Now, e  H, a  H  e * a-1  H
 a-1  H
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 Subgroup Contd..
  Each element of H has inverse in H.
Further, a  H, b  H  a  H, b-1  H
 a * (b-1)-1  H.
 a * b  H.
 H is closed w.r.t *
 Finally, Let a, b, c  H
 a, b, c  G ( since H  G )
 (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
 * is associative in H
 Hence, H is a subgroup of G.

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 Subgroup Contd..
Q. Show that the intersection of two sub groups of a
group G is again a sub group of G.
Sol. Proof: Let (G, *) be a group.
 Let H1 and H2 are two sub groups of G.
 Let a , b  H1  H2 .
 Now, a , b  H1  a * b-1  H1 ( Since, H1 is a subgroup
of G)
 again, a , b  H2  a * b-1  H2 ( Since, H2 is a
subgroup of G)
  a * b-1  H1  H2 .
 Hence, H1  H2 is a subgroup of G .

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 Subgroup Contd..
Q. Show that the union of two sub groups of a group G
need not be a sub group of G.
Sol. Proof: Let G be an additive group of integers.
 Let H1 = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, …..}

 and H2 = { 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, …..}

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