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Chapter 5 Radiometry

1) The document discusses key terms in nuclear chemistry including nucleons, atomic number, mass number, isotopes, nuclides, radioactivity, and nuclear transformations. 2) It describes the two main nuclear forces - the strong nuclear force which holds the nucleus together and the electromagnetic force which pushes protons apart. For stability, most lighter elements have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. 3) There are four main types of radioactive decay - alpha emission, beta emission, positron production, and electron capture - which move unstable isotopes towards the band of stability.

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45 views25 pages

Chapter 5 Radiometry

1) The document discusses key terms in nuclear chemistry including nucleons, atomic number, mass number, isotopes, nuclides, radioactivity, and nuclear transformations. 2) It describes the two main nuclear forces - the strong nuclear force which holds the nucleus together and the electromagnetic force which pushes protons apart. For stability, most lighter elements have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. 3) There are four main types of radioactive decay - alpha emission, beta emission, positron production, and electron capture - which move unstable isotopes towards the band of stability.

Uploaded by

tufabededa
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 5 nuclear chemistry

Radiometry
Definition of terms

Nucleons – particles found in the nucleus of an atom


– neutrons
– protons
• Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons in the nucleus
• Mass Number (A) – sum of the number of protons and neutrons
• Isotopes – atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass
numbers
• Nuclide - species of an atom with a specific number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus (individual isotope)

Isotope review activity


Definition…

• Radioactivity – the spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus forming a


different nucleus and producing one or more additional particles
• Nuclear Transformation – forced change of one element to another by
bombard elements with particles
• Nuclear Equation – shows the radioactive decomposition of an
element
14
6 C → 147N + 0
-1 e

• Nuclear Forces – strong nuclear force holds neutrons and protons


together to form a nucleus (counters electromagnetic repulsion). Weak
nuclear force operates within individual nucleons and gives rise to
some kinds of radioactivity
Types of force
Nuclear stability
• Two forces act upon the particles within the nucleus to produce the
nuclear structure
• Electrostatic force (electromagnetic force)
– force that causes opposite electrical charges to attract each other
and like charges to repel each other.
– The positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom have an
electrostatic force pushing them apart.
• Strong force
– holds nucleons (protons and neutrons) together.
– Each neutron in the nucleus of an atom is attracted to other
neutrons and to protons by the strong force
Nuclear stability
• For many of the lighter elements, the possession of an equal number of
protons and neutrons leads to stable atoms.
– For example, carbon-12 atoms, , with six protons and six neutrons, and
oxygen-16 atoms, with eight protons and eight neutrons, are both very
stable.
• Larger atoms with more protons in their nuclei require a higher ratio of
neutrons to protons to balance the increased electrostatic repulsion between
protons.
There are 264 stable nuclides found in nature. The graph shows the neutron-to-
proton ratios of these stable nuclides. Collectively, these nuclides fall within what
is known as the band of stability.
Nuclear stability…
• A nuclide containing numbers of protons and neutrons outside the band of
stability will be unstable until it undergoes one or more nuclear reactions that
take it into the band of stability.
• The unstable atoms are called radioactive nuclides
• The changes the unstable atoms undergo to reach stability are called
radioactive decay.
• Note that the band of stability stops at 83 protons.
– All of the known nuclides with more than 83 protons are radioactive, but
scientists have postulated that there should be a small island of stability
around the point representing 114 protons and 184 neutrons.
Alpha-particle production

One of the ways that nuclides with more than 83 protons change to reach the
band of stability is to release two protons and two neutrons in the form of a
helium nucleus, which is called an alpha particle.

Natural uranium, which is found in many rock formations on earth, has three
isotopes that all experience alpha emission,

• Alpha particle – helium nucleus


Beta-particle production (neutron to proton)

Some radioactive nuclides have a neutron-to-proton ratio that is too high, placing
them above the band of stability. To reach a more stable state they undergo beta
emission . In this process, a neutron becomes a proton and an electron. The proton
stays in the nucleus, and the electron, which is called a beta particle in this context,
is ejected from the atom.
Beta particle – electron
Positron production (proton to neutron )

If a radioactive nuclide has a neutron-to-proton ratio that is too low


Types of Radioactive Decay when proton is changed to neutron

• Positron – particle with same mass as an electron but with a positive


charge (antimatter version of an electron)
– Examples
Electron capture(proton to neutron )

Types of Radioactive Decay when electrons are move to the nucleus


and as the result protons are changed to neutron

• Inner orbital electron is captured. New nucleus formed and gamma


ray produced
Gamma ray release
Types of Radioactive Decay occur when excited state nucleus release
energy in the form of photons to form stable nucleus or from electron
capture
• Gamma ray – high energy photon
– Examples

Net effect is no change in mass number or atomic number.


Band of Stability

Black squares indicate


stable nuclei. Decay
occurs to move
isotopes towards the
black line
Decay Series

Decay
series
activity
Rates of Radioactive Decay
Because the different radioactive nuclides have different stabilities, the rates at
which they decay differ as well. These rates are described in terms of a nuclide’s
half-life, the time it takes for one-half of a sample to disappear.
Laboratory application

RADIOIMNOASSAY
Immunoassays (IA)
Ag + Ab ↔ AgAb
• Because of the specificity of the reaction Ab-Ag, these methods are
sensitive and reproducible.
• Mostly, they are used for hormones quantification.
• Significant and important benefits in physiology and endocrinology.
• According to the determination of the reaction between Ab-Ag, IA
techniques are divided:
– Non-labeled techniques
– Labeled techniques.
Type of label
• RADIONUCLIDES
– 125
I ( t ½ = 60 days)
– 14
C
– 3H
• ENZYMES
– Horse radish peroxidase
– Alkaline phosphatase
• FLUORESCENT MOLECULES
– Fluorescein isothiocyanate
– Rhodamine b isothiocyanate
• CHEMILUMINISCENT MOLECULES
– Isoluminol
– Fluorescein
– Acridinium Esters
– Ruthenium
Radiolabel reaction

I has half-life of 60 days and it decays by electron capture to an


125

excited state of tellurium-125 with lower energy state that decays


immediately by gamma decay with a maximum energy of 35 keV
Gama counter
Gama detector scintillator

Scintillators are materials that are able to convert high energy radiation
such as X or gamma-rays to a near visible or visible light. usually consists
of a solid NaI(TI) crystal
Advantage of radioactivity Gama counter

• One advantage of radioactivity, as compared to other analytical techniques, is


its sensitivity. For example, detecting 10-12 moles is feasible in many
applications.
• The other major advantage relates to the ability to label molecules with
radioisotopes and not greatly affect their chemical properties.
– The use of chromophores or fluorochromes for analytical have an impact
on the chemical properties of the analyte

Limitation
– The cost of equipment and reagents

– Short shelf-life of radiolabeled compounds

– The problems associated with the disposal of radioactive waste.


End of chapter 5

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