POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

AND CONTROL
By Tewodros A.
OUTLINE
 Introduction
 LF and QV control
 Load frequency control
 Speed governing system, Turbine model, Load model, Generator model
 Single area control, analysis of control area, PI controller
 Tie-line control, Area control error
 QV control
 Analysis of Generator voltage control /AVR/
 Other controllers
 Optimal Power Flow
 Economic operation /ED/
 Formulation of loss coefficient
 Hydrothermal coordination
 Power System Security /reliability/
 Optimal power flow analysis tools
 Automatic load dispatching
 Computer control of power system
 1. INTRODUCTION

 Energy management system is the process of monitoring, coordinating and

controlling the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The
physical plant to be managed includes generating plants that produce energy fed
through transformers to the HV transmission network(grid), interconnecting
generating plants, and load centers.
 Since transmission systems provide negligible energy storage, supply and demand
must be balanced by either generation or load. Production is controlled by turbine
governors at generating plants, and automatic generation control is performed by
control center computers remote from generating plants. Load management,
sometimes called demand-side management, extends remote supervision and
control to subtransmission and distribution circuits, including control of residential,
commercial, and industrial loads.
 Energy management is performed at control center, typically called system control
centers, by computer systems called energy management systems /EMS/. Data
acquisition and remote control is performed by SCADA.
 AGC consists of two major and several minor functions that operate on –line in real time
to adjust the generation against load at minimum cost. The major functions are load
frequency control and economic dispatch, and the minor functions are reserve
monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the system; interchange scheduling, which
initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and other similar monitoring and record
functions /load forecast, fault allocation, trouble analysis/.
 Generation control and ED minimize the current cost of energy production and
transmission within the range of available controls. Energy management is a supervisory
layer responsible for economically scheduling production and transmission on a global
basis and over time intervals consistent with cost optimization.
 2. LF AND QV CONTROL
 Although there are many things to control in power system, majorly we
control voltage and frequency by controlling other parameters of the
generators, load and other devices in the system.
 For efficient and secured power system- maintain reliability, security, stable,
operate in most economical way, better quality (frequency with in the limit
(3%), voltage (5% HV, 10% LV)).
 Frequency is global phenomena ( same in one node and other), voltage is
local phenomena (one point and another point is different). Eg. Change of
frequency and voltage affect normal operation of the system.
 Frequency control can be achieved by controlling active power which is possible at generation
(injecting power) and load end (consuming power). It is preferred to control the power at
generation side and load end control is done during the emergencies.
 Total Generation < demand = frequency fall. -- generation increase, or load decrease/ very
expensive b/c it affect power reliability.
 Total Generation > demand = frequency rise. – generation decrease /load increase not at
hand/
 Therefore, the explanation is energy can go no where but stored in the form of kinetic energy
and when load increases, this stored energy will be taken to supply the demand and hence
stored kinetic energy will decrease and hence speed decrease. -> the frequency of the system
will decrease because of the reduction of speed of generator [f=NP/120]. The same is true for
2nd case!
 Reactive power control is responsible mainly for voltage control which is a local problem.
There are two basic generation control loops:
(i) LFC, AGC, MW-f control loop
(ii)MVAR-Voltage, Q-V control loop
- In steady state, they are non-interactive.
 2.1 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
 In a power system the load demand is continuously changing. In accordance
with it the power input has also to vary. If the input - output balance is not
maintained a change in frequency will occur. The control of frequency is achieved
primarily through speed governor mechanism aided by supplementary means for
precise control.
 LFC consists of three major parts.

(i) Speed governing system

(ii) Rotating components (turbine-generator)

(iii) load and power system.

2.1.1 Speed governing system
- The speed governing mechanism includes
A- Speed Governor
 The essential part are centrifugal flyballs driven directly or through gearing by
the turbine shaft. The mechanism provides upward and downward vertical
movements proportional to the change in speed.
B- Linkage Mechanism
 These are links for transforming the flyballs movement to the turbine valve
through a hydraulic amplifier and providing a feedback from the turbine valve
movement.
C- Hydraulic Amplifier
 Very large mechanical forces are needed to operate the steam valve. Therefore,
the governor movements are transferred into high power forces via several
stages of hydraulic amplifiers.
D- Speed Changer
 The speed changer consists of a servomotor which can be operated manually or
automatically for scheduling load at nominal frequency. By adjusting this set
point, a desired load dispatch can be scheduled at nominal frequency.
 The speed governing system is the primary LFC loop and its simple
schematic representation is shown above.
 In order to understand the operation, we should consider two cases, i.e. the
first is when speed changer is given Raise or Lower command but speed of
the turbine remains constant and second when speed of turbine is changed
but command is not given to the speed changer. Under these conditions,
the position of the joints will be changed according to the applied
phenomena.
CASE I: Speed changer is given Raise command and speed is constant.
xa= downward
xb= 0
xc= upward
xd= upward
xe= downward
CASE II: Speed changer is constant and speed is increased.
xa= 0
xb= downward
xc= downward
xd= downward
xe= upward
- Hence a relation can be established based on the above facts.

xc = k1  f– k2  Pref
xd = k3 xc + k4 xe
xe = - k5  xd dt
Where k1 , k2, k3 and k4 are constants and depend on the length of arms and k5
depends on oil pressure and geometries of cylinder.
Let us define
k1 k2/ k4 = kg – static gain of governor
1 / k4 k5 = Tg – static gain of governor
k2/ k1 = R – Regulation of speed governor
Substituting and Simplifying , we get

Ks  F ( s ) 
X e ( s )   P ( s ) 
R 
ref
(1  Ts s )  

This can be represented using block diagram as shown below.

Block diagram representation of speed governing system

 2.1.2 TURBINE MODEL
 The figure illustrate the turbine-generator
mechanical connection.
 The turbine-generator model depends on whether
we have hydro-turbines, or in case of steam
turbines we have reheat or non-reheat type of
steam turbines.
 For a simple a non-reheat type turbine model is
given by a single time constant,

K TG
GTG ( s ) 
1  sTTG
 Taking input power to the turbine is Pv /power from
the valve opening/ and output power is mechanical
power Pm, the block diagram becomes
2.1.3 GENERATOR MODEL
 The basic configuration of turbine and generator is shown in the figure
below.
 Here, based on swing
equation,

 For a change  in mechanical and electrical power, the above equation

using per unit system becomes, df
2H  P  P m e
dt
 Taking Laplace transform, we get 1
(Pm ( s)  Pe ( s))  F ( s)
2 Hs
2.1.4 LOAD MODEL

 In general, power system loads are a composite of a variety of electrical devices,

For resistive loads, such as lighting and heating loads, the electrical power is
independent of frequency. In case of motor loads, such as fans and pumps, the
electrical power changes with frequency due to changes in motor speed. The
overall frequency-dependent characteristics of a composite load may be
expressed as

Pe  PL  Df

 Where PL is the non-frequency-sensitive load change, f is the frequency-

sensitive load change, and D is expressed as percent change in load divided by
percent change in frequency.
 Substituting the above equation to the previous model (generator model), we
get the following block diagram
Using transfer function of closed loop can be G(s)/1 + G(s) H(s), the above model can
be further simplified as follows [taking G(s) = 1/2Hs and H(s) = D]
 2.1.5 SINGLE CONTROL AREA
 In the previous sections models for turbine-generator, power system and speed
governing systems are obtained. In practice, rarely a single generator feeds a large
area. Several generators connected in parallel, located also, at different places will
supply the power needs of a geographical area. Quite normally, all these generators
have the same response characteristics in load demand. Such a coherent area is called
a control area in which the frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static as
well as dynamic conditions.
 In such a case, it is possible to define a control area, grouping all the generators in the
area together and treating them as a single equivalent generator, i.e for purpose of
developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a single speed
governor, turbo-generator and load system. Putting together, the carious models
derived so far a single control area can be conceived as shown below.
o The basic requirements to be fulfilled for successful operation of the system are
(i) The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand.

(ii) The system frequency must be maintained with narrow and rigid limits.

(iii) The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits

(iv) In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at the
specified values.

 Should the generation be not adequate to balance the load demand, it is

imperative that on e of the following alternatives be considered for keeping the
system in operating condition:
1. Starting fast peaking units

2. Load shedding for unimportant loads, and

3. Generation rescheduling
o The block diagram of single area system, where the gain and
time constant in each block are as described in the individual
section before, is as shown below.

 F ( s)  K s  KTG   Kp
F ( s)   Pref       PL 
 R  1  sTs  1  sTTG   1  sTp
 2.1.6 ANALYSIS OF SINGLE AREA SYSTEM
 The above model shows that there are two important incremental inputs to the

load frequency control system - Pref, the change in speed changer setting, and

PL, the change in load demand. Let us consider a simple situation in which
the speed changer has a fixed setting (Pref, = 0.) and the load demand changes.
This is known as free governor operation.
 In the given condition, the block diagram will be simplified as
A. LOAD CHANGE ONLY Considering Ts < TTG << TP and KSKTG  1, the
dynamic response which is giving the change in frequency as a function of the
time for a step change in load can be obtained as follows:
F ( s)  T ( s)PL

G (s)
T (s) 
1  G (s) H (s)
where G(s) = KP/(1+sTP ) and H(s) =1/R.
 Hence,

 Kp   
   
 1  sTp  PL K  PL
F ( s)    F ( s)   
p

 K p  1   s  K p   s
1       1    sT p 
  1  sTp  R    R  
 
Output Step input
 Partial fractions for the expression can be simplified as follows:
1 1 C D C ( D / A) 
1
  L1    C  ( D / A) exp( B / A)t
s A  Bs s A  BS 
 s 1  ( B / A) s 
 Based on this, the above expression can be simplified
 
 
Kp  1 1
F ( s)  PL
Tp   R  K p   s
s  
  RTp  
 
 The laplace transform of the above equation is as follow

RK p   t  R     t  
f (t )   1  exp   PL
 f (t )   PL 1  exp    
R  Kp  
 T  R  K     Tp  
 p p

Where  = 1
and k= 1
= D
D  1 / R  1  1 / RD 
 oThe plot of change in frequency versus time for first order
approximation given above is as shown below.
dynamic response
steady state result (at t = ) f (t )   PL
 Frequency (Hz)

Steady state change in frequency = -PL /(D+1/R)

Time(sec)

o Therefore, we can say that the LFC system posses inherently steady
state error for a step input of load change provided that the reference
setting remains unchanged.
 B. REFERENCE SETTING CHANGE ONLY: Consider now the steady
effect of changing speed changer setting with load demand remaining fixed.
Similar to the previous condition, letting Ts < TTG << TP and KSKTG  1, the
simplified block diagram and transfer function becomes

F ( s)  T ( s)PL

G (s)
T (s) 
1  G (s) H (s)
Where G(s) = KP/(1+sTP) and H(s) =1/R

 Kp 
   
 1  sTp  PL  K 
F ( s)   F ( s)     PL
 K p  1   s
p

1       K p   s
  1  sTp  R    1    sT p 
   R  

Output Step input

 Following the same procedure as case A, the steady state change in frequency
due to change in reference setting will have similar expression:

f (t )  Pref
 If the speed change setting is changed by Pref while the load demand
changes by PL, the steady state frequency change is obtained by
superposition, i.e.

f   Pref  PL 
 According to the above equation, the frequency change caused by load
demand can be compensated by changing the setting of the speed changer, i.e.

, for f = 0.
Pref  PL
 Figure: Effect of speed changer setting on
the frequency stability of the system

 Therefore, for this purpose, a signal from f is fed through an integrator to the
speed changer resulting in the block diagram configuration shown below.
 Now, the analysis on input-output relation results

  F ( s) K F ( s)  K s  KTG   Kp
F ( s)          PL 
 s R  1  sTs  1  sTTG   1  sT p
 Neglecting TS and TTG /both have << Tp/ and KSKTG  1, the above equation
becomes,
  F ( s) K F ( s)   Kp
F ( s)       PL 
 s R   1  sT p
 Rearranging,
Kp PL
F ( s)   
 K 1  s
 1  Tp s     K p 
  s R 
 Then, the change in steady state frequency is

 sRK p PL 
f steadystate  lim s 0 sF ( s)  lim s 0 s     0
 sR 1  T s  KR  s K  s 
 p p 
 Here we find that the steady state change in frequency has been reduced to
zero by the addition of the integral controller. In central load frequency
control of a given control area, the change (error) in frequency is known as
Area Control Error (ACE). The additional signal fed back in the modified
control scheme presented above is the integral of ACE.
 From the above analysis, it is clear that proportional integral and derivative
control strategy can be applied for load frequency control. While proportional
control is inherent in the feedback through the governor mechanism itself,
derivative control when introduced improves transient performance and
ensures better margin of stability for the system.
 The selection of the gain controller /in the secondary LFC/ should be such
that i. control loop must be stable, ii. Frequency error should return to zero
COMPOSITE SYSTEM IN A SINGLE CONTROL AREA: The composite
power/frequency characteristics of a power system thus depends on the
combined effect of the droops of all generator speed governors. It also
depends on the frequency characteristics of all the loads in the system.

where Meq /equivalent generator/

= M

 For a system with n generators and a composite load-damping constant of D,

the steady-state frequency deviation following a load change PL is given by

 PL
f ss 
1 / R1  1 / R2  1 / R3 ...1 / Rn   D
 2.1.7 TIE-LINE CONTROL
 An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency
control areas interconnected by means of tie lines in order i. to get commercial
benefit from neighboring systems ii. to meet sudden requirement of electric power and
improve reliability iv. Reduce in installed capacity. The major disadvantages are control
system becomes complex and any disturbance in one system is reflected in the other area .

Tie line
Control Control
Area A Area B

 The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to
simultaneously regulate the tie line power as per inter-area power contracts. As in
the case of frequency, PI controller will be installed so as to give zero steady state
error in tie line power flow as compared to the contracted power.
 Power transported out of area A is given by
V1 V2
sin(1   2 )
o o
Ptie,1 
X 12

where ,1o  2are

o
power angles of equivalent machines of the two areas.

 For incremental changes in 1 and 2 , the incremental tie line power can be
expressed as
V V

Ptie ,1   1 2 cos 1   2
o o
( 1   2 ) Ptie ,1  T12 (1   2 )
 X 12 

Where T12 is synchronizing coefficient.

 Since incremental power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies (f1
and f2), the above equation can be written as
2T12
Ptie ,1  2T12 (  f1dt   f 2 dt ) Ptie,1  (F1  F2 )  P12
s
 Similarly the incremental tie line power out of area B is given by
2T21
Ptie , 2  2T21 (  f 2 dt   f1dt ) Ptie , 2  (F2  F1 )  P12
s
 The block diagram of the system based on the above analysis is
given below

Control Area A

Control Area B
 The steady state response of this two area system can be determined as follows.
 Consider the speed changer position is fixed (Pref1 and Pref2) and there are step load

changes in both areas (PL1 and PL2).

 The turbine input change (Pm1 ss & Pm2 ss) due to the valve opening by the regulation
characteristics in the two areas in steady state condition becomes ,

Pm1 ss = - (1/R1)  Fss ; Pm2 ss = - (1/R2)  Fss

 Under this condition,

&
 Solving for steady state frequency and tie line power, we get
 1    1  
  
   ss F  P  PL1  D1  Fss        
   ss F P PL 2  D2  Fss
12
  R1 
12
 & R
  2 

Where 1 = D1 +1/R PL2 2 = D2 + 1/R2

PL11 and  P   2 PL1 
Fss   P12  1 L 2
[ 1   2 ] [ 1   2 ]
 We thus conclude from the preceding analysis that the two area system, just
as in the case of a single area system in the uncontrolled mode, has a steady
state error but to a lesser extent and the tie line power deviation and
frequency deviation exhibit oscillations that are damped out latter.
 Hence, in interconnected operation to avoid these deviations and also to
enable each area control the changes in such a fashion that it absorbs its own
load change in steady state, area control error signals should be sent to
reference (speed changer) in the two areas respectively as follows

Using
ACElaplace transform Pref 1   K1  P12  1f1 dt
12  1f1

1  P

ACE 2  P21   2 f 2 Pref 2   K 2  P21   2 f 2 dt

K1
Pref 1   P12  1f1 
s
K2
Pref 2   P21   2 f 2 
s
 The general block diagram for a two area system can now be developed as
shown below.

ACE 1

ACE 2
 2.2 QV CONTROL
 Industrial and domestic loads, both, require real and reactive power. Hence,
generators have to produce both real and reactive power. Reactive power is
required to excite various types of electrical equipment as well as transmission
network.
 Basically, the reactive power transmitted over a line a great impact on the voltage
profile. Hence, by controlling the production, absorption and flow of reactive
power at all levels in the system, the control of voltage levels is accomplished.
 For efficient and reliable operation of power systems, the control of voltage and
reactive power should satisfy the following objectives;
(a) Voltage at the terminals of all equipment in the system are within acceptable limits.

(b) The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce losses to a practical minimum.
 Important generators of reactive power are
 over-excited synchronous machines
 capacitor banks, the capacitance of overhead lines and cables
 Static var compensators

 Important consumers of reactive power are

 inductive static loads, shunt reactors, inductance of overhead lines and cables
 under-excited synchronous machines,
 Transformer inductances, induction motors
 Static var compensators

 For some of these, the reactive power is easy to control, while for others it is
practically impossible. The most important devices for reactive power and
voltage control are described hereafter.
2.2.1 ANALYSIS OF GENERATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL
 Generators are often operated at constant voltage by using an AVR which senses
the terminal voltage level and adjusts the excitation to maintain constant terminal
voltage also maintain the reactive output at the required level.
 The main purpose of the excitation system of a synchronous machine which may
be either DC excitation, AC excitation or Brushless excitation scheme is to feed
the field winding with direct current so that the main flux in the rotor is
generated. The relation between terminal voltage and induced voltage of
alternator can be expressed as

V  E  I Z  E  jI X
 Under different loading conditions especially when there sis constant real power
and variable reactive power demand, the terminal voltage will vary.
 Consider that the current is operating at unity power factor and hence, no reactive
power generation at the alternator. For there is any change in reactive power
demand, the alternator acts to supply the demand, if there is no any other device to
respond. If excitation is not changed depending on the condition, the terminal
voltage of the alternator deviate from the desired value. This in turn, affects the
voltage distribution in the system. In order to avoid this problem the excitation of
the alternator has to take action accordingly.
 To understand how voltage can be maintained using excitation system, consider the
following
schematic diagram
 The function of important components and their transfer function is given
below
1. Potential transformer: It gives a sample of terminal voltage , VT

2. Differencing device: at the feedback point, Vref - VT = e

3. Error amplifier: It demodulates and amplifies the error signal. eA = kA e, where kA is

amplifier gain.

4. SCR power amplifier and exciter field: It provides the necessary power amplification to the
d
signal for controlling the exciter field. e A  Re ie  Le (ie )
dt
where ie is the change in exciter field current. If 1A change in field current produce k volt

change in the output, then ef = kA ie. The transfer function of the exciter using laplace can
E f ke Ke
be expressed as  
E A Re  sLe 1  sTe
5. Alternator: Its field is excited by the main exciter voltage. Under no-load it produces a
voltage proportional to field current. The input voltage signal ef to the generator field, when
applied to the circuit results in the following Kirchoff’s voltage equation.
d
e f  R f i f  L f (i f )
dt
 2
I f  V
… If the output voltage changes by v, then  L
where Lfafa is the mutual inductance between

the field and stator phase winding . Hence, the transfer function for the generator block will be
V 2 1 K gf
 
E f R f L fa L ff 1  sTgf
1 s
Rf
 The voltage regulator loop can be represented by the following block diagram

 The cascaded transfer function blocks can be combined into single block

 K A   K e   K gf 
GVR ( s )     
1  sTA  1  sTe  1  sTgf 
2.2.2 OTHER CONTROLLERS

 Shunt Reactors: are used to compensate for the effects of line capacitance,
particularly to limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load.

 Shunt Capacitors: supply reactive power and boost local voltages. They
are used throughout the system and are applied in a wide range of sizes.

Transmission System Distribution System

 Synchronous condenser: is a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or
a mechanical load. By controlling the field excitation, it can be made to either generate
or absorb reactive power.
 Static var compensators (SVCs): may be comprised of two different elements, i.e
TCR and TSC. By delaying the firing of the thyristors, a continuous control of the
current through the reactor can be obtained, with the reactive power consumption
varying between 0 and V2/X.

 By combining the TCR with a suitable number

of capacitor banks, a continuous control of the
reactive power can be achieved by a combination
of capacitor bank switching and control of reactor
current. The control system of the SVC controls
the reactive output so that the voltage magnitude
Of the controlled node is kept constant.
Static var compenstor
 3. OPTIMAL POWER FLOW
3.1 ECONOMIC OPERATION /ED-ECONOMIC DISPATCH/
 The economic dispatch problem consists in allocating the total demand among
generating units so that the production cost is minimized.
 Generating units have different production costs depending on the prime energy
source used to produce electricity (mainly coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, and water
stored in reservoirs).
 In addition to continuous decisions on how to allocate the demand among
generating units, the economics of electricity generation also requires the
calculation of an optimum time schedule for the start-up and shutdown costs of the
generating units. (since the units’ start-up or shutdown costs can be significant,
on/off scheduling decisions must be optimally coordinated with the ED of the
continuous generation outputs.
 Each generating unit is assigned a function, Ci(PGi), characterizing its generating
cost in $/h in terms of the power produced in MW, PGi, during 1hr. This function
is obtained by multiplying the heat rate curve, expressing the fuel consumed to
produce 1MW during 1hr, by the cost of the fuel consumed during that hour.
/Note that the heat rate is a measure of the energy efficiency of the generating
unit/.

 Considering n generating units, the total production cost is

n
C ( PG )   Ci ( PGi )
i 1
where Pgi is unit generation level
 If the system total demand is PD total and all generating units contribute to
supply this demand, total production or generation must be
n

  Pconsists
The ED problem  (P
i 1
GiP )0
of minimizing the total cost with respect to the unit
Dtotal loss

generation output subject to the above power balance, and to the generating
unit operational limits
min max
PGi  PGi  PGi
 Using the method of Lagrange multipliers, neglecting losses and generating
limits for simplicity, we have L(P,) = F(P) + G(P) where F(P) is
objective function for minimization and G(P) is equality constraint.
Therefore,
n
 n 
L( PG ,  )   C ( PGi )     PGi  PDtotal 
 The necessary conditions are given as i 1  i 1 

L(.)
0
PGi
L(.)
0

 Hence, we get
C1 ( PG1 ) C2 ( PG 2 ) C3 ( PG 3 ) C4 ( PG 4 ) Cn ( PGn )
    ...  
PG1 PG 2 PG 3 PG 4 PGn
n

P
i 1
Gi  PDtotal  0

 The above equation states that at the optimum all the generating stations operate
the same incremental cost for optimum economy and their incremental
production cost is equal to the Lagrange multiplier  at the optimum.
 In addition to the load should be taken up always at the lowest incremental cost,
it must be ensured that the generations so determined are with in their capacities.
Under this circumstance, the Lagrange function becomes

n
 n  n max n
L( PG ,  )   C ( PGi )     PGi  PDtotal    i ( PGi  PGi )   i ( PGi  PGi )
max min min

i 1  i 1  i 1 i 1
 i max and i min
where new multipliers, are incorporated, corresponding to the
minimum and maximum power outputs of each generating unit.
 The first-order necessary optimality conditions become

L(.) i max  0;  PGi  PGi max

 ICi ( PGi )    i  i  0; i  1,....n
max min

PGi i max  0;  PGi  PGi max

L(.) n i min  0;  PGi  PGi min
  PGi  PDtotal  0
 i 1
i max  0;  PGi  PGi min
 Hence, the marginal cost will be operated at equal incremental cost if the
generation is with in the limits. Otherwise, the generation has to be kept
constant at the capacity limit for that unit and eliminated from further optimum
calculations.
3.2 ECONOMIC SCHEDULING INCLUDING LOSSES
 Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk
transfer of electrical energy, from generating power plants to substations located near
to population centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage
substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electricity distribution. In
this process, some part of electric energy is lost as transmission and distribution loss.
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ene_ele_pow_tra_and_dis_los_of_out-power-transmission-distribution-losses-output

…
…cont’d
 The size of the power systems increased enormously, with long transmission
lines connecting several power generating stations extending over large
geographical areas transferring power to several load centers.
 With this development, it has become necessary to consider not only the
incremental fuel costs but also incremental transmission losses incurred in these
line while power is transmitted.
 Here, the previous equality constraint is modified by including losses and the
Lagrange function becomes
n
 n 
L( PG ,  )   C ( PGi )     PGi  PDtotal  Ploss 
 Applying the necessary conditions for the minimum L i 1  i 1 

 
 
L(.) Ci ( PGi ) Ploss Ci ( PGi ) Ploss Ci ( PGi )  1 ;
   (1  )0    (1  )  i  1,....n
PGi PGi PGi PGi PGi PGi  Ploss 
 1  P 
 Gi 

Penality factor
 The sum of the incremental production cost of power at any plant i and the
incremental transmission losses incurred due to generation Pi at bus i charged
at the rate of  must be constant for all generators and equal to . This constant
 is equal to the incremental cost of the received power.
 One of the most important, simple but approximate methods of expressing
transmission loss as a function of generator powers is through B-coefficients.
This method uses the fact that under normal operating condition the
transmission loss is quadratic in the injected bus real powers.

PL    Pi Bij Pj Ploss
  2 Bij Pj
where Pi and P are real power
j
i j
injection
PGi jat bus i and j, and Bij is loss
coefficients.
 Substituting this to the previous first derivative equation, we get
Ci ( PGi )
  (1   2 Bij Pj ) ; i  1,....n
PGi j

 If the incremental costs are represented by a linear relationship following a quadratic

characteristics, then ICi(PGi) = ciPi + di
n
ci PGi  d i  2Bii Pi  2  Bij Pj   ;
i 1
i j

 Substituting PGi = Pi + Pdi, and simplifying for Pi

n
di ci
1 2 PDi - 2 Bij Pj
  i 1
i j
Pi  ; i  1,2,...n
 ci 
  Bii 
 

 For any particular value of , the above equation can be solved iteratively by
assuming initial values of Pi . Iterations are stopped when Pis converge within a
specified accuracy.

 It should be understood that losses can be considered not only as a constraint but also
as objective function.
3.3 HYDRO-THERMAL SCHEDULING
 Most of the power systems are a mix of different modes of generating station of which
thermal and hydro generating units are predominant. The hydro plants can be started
easily and can be assigned load in very short time. This is not so in case of thermal
plants, as it requires several hours to bring the boiler, super heater, and turbine system
ready to take the load allotment. For this reason, the thermal plants are more suitable to
operate as base load plants, leaving hydro plants to operate as peak load plants.

 Whatever, may be the type of plant, it is necessary to utilize the total quantity of water
available in hydro development so that maximum economy is achieved.
EEPCo Installed Actual load share in
capacity 2009/2010
 Considering the operation time to be T, let us divide into J

intervals 1,2,….J to suit the load curve so that n

j 1
j T

 The equality constraint for the total volume of water

available for discharge over this period is
J

n
j 1
j wj W  0

where wj is the water rate for interval j

J
 The fuel cost required to  j C ( PSGj ) over
be nminimized CT this period T is
j 1

given as
 For load balance assuming loads are constant during this
interval and head of water is also remain constant, the
equality constraint is

PSGj + PHGj - PDi = 0.

 The input-output characteristic for the equivalent hydro plant
is

w = w(PH)
 The Lagrange function for minimization subject to the above constraints is

 J 
L( PSG , PHG ,  ,  )   n j C ( PSGj )    j PSGj  PHGj  PDj     n j w j ( PHGj )  W 
J J

j 1 j 1  j 1 

Objective function
 For any specific value of j, the necessary conditions are
Power balance constraint Water balance constraint

L(.) C Sj
0 nj  j
PSGj PSGj
L(.) w j
0
PHGj n j  j
PHGj
 Solution to the above equations gives the economic generations at steam and
hydro plants over any time interval. The incremental production cost at the steam
plants must be the same as incremental production cost at the hydro plants.
3.4 OPTIMAL POWER FLOW ANALYSIS TOOLS

 There are various optimization methods have been proposed to solve the optimal power flow
problem in iterative techniques, some of which are refinements on earlier methods. These include:
 Gradient descent method: is a first-order optimization algorithm. To find a local minimum of a function
using gradient descent, one takes steps proportional to the negative of the gradient (or of the approximate
gradient) of the function at the current point.
 Newton’s method: is a method for finding successively better approximations to the zeroes (or roots) of a
real-valued function.
 Linear programming methods: is a technique for the optimization of a linear objective function, subject
to linear equality and linear inequality constraints.
 Quadratic programming methods: is a special type of mathematical optimization problem. It is the
problem of optimizing (minimizing or maximizing) a quadratic function of several variables subject to
linear constraints on these variables.
 Interior point method: are a certain class of algorithms to solve linear and nonlinear convex optimization
problems.
 3.5 SECURITY CONSTRAINED OPF
 So far we have been primarily concerned with the economical operation of a power
system. An equally important factor in the operation of a power system is the desire to
maintain system security.
 Security of supply is a measure of the power system’s capacity to continue operating
within defined technical limits even in the event of the disconnection of a major power
system element such as an interconnector or large generator or any piece of equipment in
the system due to either internal or external causes such as lightning strikes, objects
hitting transmission towers, or human errors in setting relays.
 Reliability is a measure of the power system’s capacity to continue to supply sufficient
power to satisfy customer demand, allowing for the loss of generation capacity.
 Hence, the EMS has to operate the system at minimum cost, with the guaranteed
alleviation of emergency conditions such as violations of operating limits, contingencies.
NORMAL OPERATING CONDITION LINE 3-5 OUTAGE
NORMAL OPERATING CONDITION UNIT OUTAGE
Future tie line connection to other control areas which
then require highly secured system.
 System security can be said to comprise three major functions that are carried
out in an energy control center:
 System monitoring: supplies the power system operators with pertinent up-to-date
information on the conditions of the power system. Telemetry systems measure and
transmit the data, and then digital computers in a control center process and inform the
operators in case of an overload or out of limit.
 Contingency analysis: this model possible system troubles (outages) before they occur
i.e, it carries out emergency identification and “what if” simulation. This allows the
system operators to locate defensive operating states where no single contingency event
will generate overloads and/or voltage violations.
 Corrective action analysis: permits the operator to change the operation of the power
system if a contingency analysis program predicts a serious problem in the event of the
occurrence of a certain outage. Thus, this provides preventive and post-contingency
control.
3.5.1 SECURITY ASSESSMENT: CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
 The evaluation of the security degree of a power system is a crucial problem, both in
planning and in daily operation. Without considering dynamic issues, power system
security must be interpreted as security against a series of previously defined contingencies,
therefore, the concept of security and its quantification are conditioned.
 Operations personnel must know which line or generation outages will cause flows or
voltages to fall outside limits. To predict the effects of outages, contingency analysis
techniques are used.
 Security assessment or Contingency analysis procedures model single failure events (i.e.,
one-line outage or one-generator outage) or multiple equipment failure events (i.e., two
transmission lines, one transmission line plus one generator, etc.), one after another in
sequence until “all credible outages” have been studied. For each outage tested, the
contingency analysis procedure checks all lines and voltages in the network against their
respective limits.
A. CONTINGENCY DEFINITION:- the list of contingencies to be processed whose

probability of occurrence is high.

 The question is how to select the contingencies to analyze in detail in such a way
that none of the problematic ones would be left unattended, also taking into
account the required speed of response imposed by real time operation.
 One way to gain speed of solution in a contingency analysis procedure is to use
an approximate model of the power system. For many systems, the use of linear
sensitivity method which shows the approximate change in line flows for
changes in generation on the network configuration /derived from the DC load
flow method/ provides adequate capability. However, the limitation attributed to
the DC power flow is that only branch MW flows are calculated and there is no
knowledge of MVAR flows or bus voltage magnitudes.
 The linear sensitivity factors are basically two types:
 Generation shift factors – change in line flow ( f ) due to generation outage (P )
l i

f l
al ,i 
Pi
 Line outage distribution factors - change in line flow ( f ) due to line outage (fk)
l

f l
d l ,k  o
 The flow on line l, under
fk the assumption that all the generators in the
interconnection participate in making up the loss, use the following

f l  f l  ali Pi   [alj ji Pj ] where  ji is proportionality factor for pickup on generating unit j when unit i fails
' 0

 The power flow on line l with line k out can be determined using ‘d’ factors
j i

' o o
f l  f l  d l ,k f k where f o are preoutage flows on lines
B. CONTINGENCY SELECTION: – these contingencies are ranked in rough
order of severity employing contingency selection algorithms to shorten the list.
 The idea of performance index seems to fulfill this need. The definition for the
overload performance index (PI) is as follows:

2n
 Pflowl 
PI    max 
 The selection procedureall branches
then
l
Pinvolves
l  ordering the PI table from largest value
to least. The lines corresponding to the top of the list are then candidates for the
short list.
 One way to perform an outage case selection is to perform what has been called
1P1Q method. Here, a decoupled power flow is used to determine power flow
through the lines and voltage at the nodes. Thus, a different PI can be used,

2n 2m
 Pflowl   V Pflowl 
PI    max     i max 
all branches  Pl
  V 
l
 all branches
i  i 
C. CONTINGENCY EVALUATION:– is then
performed on the successive individual cases in
decreasing order of severity. There are many power
systems where voltage magnitudes are the critical
factor in assessing contingencies. Hence, detail AC
analysis on overloads and voltage limit violations are
important.
o When an AC power flow is to be used to study each
contingency case, the speed of solution and number
of cases to be studied are critical. To alleviate this
problem, on the selected contingencies, AC analysis
will be performed. A flow chart for a process like
this appears in figure below.
3.5.3 OPERATING STATES:
 The correct comprehension of the role played by the different activities involved
in the system operation implies classifying of the possible system states as a
function of the security degree. There are four different states:
i. Normal state – all the system variables are within the normal range and no
equipment is being overloaded. The system operates in a secure manner and is
able to withstand a contingency without violating any of the constraints.

ii. Alert state – all system variables are still within the acceptable range and all
constraints are satisfied. However, the system has been weakened to a level
where a contingency may cause an overloading of equipment that places the
system in an emergency state. If the disturbance is very severe, the in extremis
state may result directly from the alert state.
iii. Emergency state: – if a sufficiently sever disturbance occurs when the system is in
the alert state. In this state, voltages at many buses are low and/or equipment
loadings exceed short-term emergency ratings. The system is still intact and may be
restored to alert state by the initiating of emergency control

iv. Extremis: - if measures taken are not effective, the result is cascading outages and
possibly a shut-down of a major portion of the system. Control actions, such as load
shedding and controlled system separation, are aimed at saving as much of the
system as possible from a widespread blackout.

v. Restorative state: - represents a condition in which control action is being taken to

reconnect all the facilities and to restore system load. The system transits from this
state to either the alert state or the normal state, depending on the conditions.
Power system operating states

Normal

Restorative
Alert

In extremis

Emergency
 4. COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEM
 The ability to perform operations at an unattended location from an attended
station or operating center and to have a definite indication that the operations
have been successfully carried out can provide significant cost savings in the
operation of a power system.
 Devices to control equipment remotely have been used for many years, and
the need for remote indication as well as control led to the development of
equipment that could perform the operations, monitor them, and report back
to the control center that the desired control action had been satisfactorily
affected. At the same time it is often important to transmit such information as
loads and bus voltages to an operating center.
4.1 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA AQUSITION /SCADA/
 Supervisory control: is the SCADA function used to control commands to
field equipment (digital devices, set points) under the supervision of the
RTUs, from the operator or from another application, through a user-callable
Application Programming Interface (API).
 This allows to operate
 two state devices, such as switching devices, with associated open/close
commands
 adjustable devises such as transformer tap changer with associated
raise/lower commands
 power units with set points, with interfacing with the AGC function
 Almost all modern dispatch and operating centers of power systems are now
provided with at least some SCADA system equipment.
 SCADA equipment has proven to be efficient and economical for power
system operations. It is a very effective aid for station operators, making it
possible for them to maintain relatively complete knowledge of conditions on
the portions of the system for which they are responsible.
 The term Supervisory Control is normally applied to remote
operation(control) of such devices as motors or circuit breakers, and the
signalling back (supervision) to indicate that the desired operation actually has
been affected where as Data Acquisition means data is collected from RTUs,
substation and power plant’s digital control system, other control centers,
manual entries, automatic calculations, and any data from other applications.
Supervisory master units: is the heart of the system. All operator initiated operations of
an RTU are made through the master unit and are reported back to the master from the
RTUs. Modern supervisory master units consist of a digital computer and equipment to
permit communications between the master and the RTUs.
 In addition to computer, peripheral equipment necessary for the proper operation of the
system is provided. Such equipment consists of
1. control console

2. keyboards or other means of entering data and commands into the computer

3. CRTs or monitors

4. Printer to provide the operator at the master station with written messages of actions performed
by the master and of data obtained from RTUs.

5. Digital-to-Analogue converters to convert the digital data message information (on such items as
line current, bus voltage, frequency, power, and reactive power flow) to analogue form that can
be used to supply indicating or recording instruments.
Remote terminal units: are located at selected stations, ad are either wired to perform
certain preselected functions or, in modern units, equipped with microcomputers
which have memory and logic capabilities.
 The RTUs are also equipped with modems so that they can accept messages from
the master and signal back to the master that messages have been received and the
desired operations performed.
 Transducers in the remote units are used to convert such quantities as voltage,
current, watts and vars to direct current or voltage proportional to the measured
quantity, and then by means of analogue-to-digital converters convert the quantity
to digital form, used by the system for transmission from the remote to the master.
SCADA system applications: in addition to the remote supervisory control, status
monitoring, various other programs can be incorporated in such systems to improve
operations and minimize the manual effort required of power system operators. Some of
these are
a) Automatic generation control:- control systems that are responsive to frequency variations, cost
factors, transmission losses, etc

b) Security monitoring:- checking the limits of loading and other quantities in order to determine
whether the system is at or near at alert or emergency state.

c) Online load flow:- when sufficient information is telemetered to the master unit, a load flow
program can be developed to predict loading of lines and stations under selected future conditions
using actual operating data.

The reliability of a SCADA system is very important, and several means are used to
ensure maximum reliability for such system. Most master units are dual computers, with
one as a primary unit and the other on standby to take immediate control, usually

automatically, if primary unit should fail.

4.2 AUTOMATIC LOAD DISPATCHING
 The Load Dispatch Department is the nerve centre for the operation, planning,
monitoring and control of the power system. Electricity cannot be stored and
has to be produced when it is needed. It is therefore essential that power
system is planned and operated optimally & economically. This is the main
objective of Load Dispatch Centre.
Major Functions of Load Dispatch Center:
 To ensure integrated operation of the power system.

 To give directions and exercise supervision and control which is

required for integrated operation to achieve maximum economy and
efficiency in power system operation.

 Scheduling and Re-Scheduling of available resources for optimum and

economic operation of the power system.

 To coordinate shutdowns for the Generating Units and Sub-station

equipment, including transmission lines taking into consideration
continuity of supply with quality.

 System Restoration in a systematic manner in shortest possible

duration, following Grid Disturbances.

 Accounting of Energy handled by the State System.

 Compiling & Furnishing data pertaining to Power System Operation.