Principles of Electromechanical Energy

Conversion
 Electromechanical energy conversion theory is the
foundation for the analysis of electromechanical motion
devices.
 The theory allows us to express the electromagnetic
force or torque in terms of the device variables such as
the currents and the displacement of the mechanical
system.
 Since numerous types of electromechanical devices are
used in motion systems, it is desirable to establish
methods of analysis which may be applied to a variety of
electromechanical devices rather than just electric
machines.
Types of electromechanical energy conversion
devices
Transducers (for measurement and control)
 These devices transform the signals of different forms. Examples
are microphones, pickups, and speakers.
Force producing devices (linear motion devices)
 These type of devices produce forces mostly for linear motion
drives, such as relays, solenoids (linear actuators), and
electromagnets.
Continuous energy conversion equipment
 These devices operate in rotating mode. A device would be
known as a generator if it convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy, or as a motor if it does the other way around
(from electrical to mechanical).
 FORCES AND TORQUES IN MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
Lorentz Force Law:

F  q (E  v  B )

For many charged particle

Fv   (E  v  B) N/m3 (  coulombs/m3)

Current density Jv A/m2 Fv  J  B

Current IJA A F  IB N/m

Energy conservation in electromechanical conversions
When a conductor constituting part of a circuit loop moves
in a magnetic field, voltages, currents and forces are
generated in such a way that it is:
F.v=e.i.
Therefore the mechanical power needed to keep the
conductor moving is converted in electrical power
generated and deployed in the circuit.
Example : A nonmagnetic motor containing a single-turn coil is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of magnitude B0, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The coil
sides are at radius R and the wire carries current I as indicated. Find the θ-
directed torque as a function of rotor position α when I=10 A, B0=0.02 T
and R=0.05 m. Assume that the rotor is of length l=0.3 m.
Force and Torque Calculation from Energy and Coenergy

A Singly Excited Linear Actuator

Electrical terminals: e and i

Mechanical terminals: ffld and x
Losses separated from energy storage mechanism
Interaction through magnetic stored energy
After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for
a distance dx under the action of the force F. The mechanical
done by the force acting on the plunger during this time interval
is thus
dWm= Fdx

Time rate of change of Wfld (field energy) equals to the difference of input
electrical power and output mechanical power for lossless systems.

d W fld dx
 e i  f fld
dt dt
or
d W fld  i d  f fld dx
Force can be solved as a function of flux linkage λ and position x.
 ENERGY BALANCE
Energy neither created nor destroyed, it only changes the form.

Energy balance equation is written for motor action below

Energy input  Mechanical  Increase in   Energy 
 from electric   energy    energy stored   converted
       
 sources   output  in magnetic field  to heat 

For lossless magnetic-energy-storage system

d Welec  d Wmech  d W fld

d Welec : Differential electrical energy input
d Wmech : Differential mechanical energy output
d W fld : Differential change in magnetic stored energy
 ENERGY IN SINGLY-EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
Schematic of an electromagnetic relay.
 The magnetic circuit can be described by an inductance which is a
function of the geometry and permeability of the magnetic material.
When air-gap exist in most cases Rgap>>Rcore and energy storage occurs in
the gap.
Magnetic nonlinearity and core losses neglected in practical devices.
Flux linkage and current linearly related.
Energy equation

  L( x) i
  L( x).i
d W fld  i d  f fld dx
Wfld uniquely specified by the value of λ and x. Thus, λ and x are called
STATE VARIABLES.
Magnetic stored energy Wfld uniquely determined by λ and x
regardless of how they are brought to their final values.
d W fld  i d  f fld dx
W fld   dW
path 2 a
fld   dW
path 2 b
fld

For Path 2a change in =0 so

 dW
path 2 a
fld 0

0
W fld (0 , x0 )   i ( , x0 ) d
0
OR magnetic stored energy:
Integration paths for Wfld. Figure 3.5
B 
W fld     H dB  dV
V0 
 For a linear system in which λ is proportional to i

For Linear system i=/L

Example The relay shown on the figure is made of infinitely-permeable
magnetic material with a movable plunger, also of infinitely-permeable
material. The height of the plunger is much greater than the air-gap length
(h>>g). Calculate the magnetic stored energy Wfld as a function of plunger
position (0<x<d) for N=1000 turns, g=2 mm, d=0.15 m, l=0.1 m, and i=10
A.
 DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE
FROM ENERGY

Consider any state function F(x1, x2), the total differential of F with
respect to the two variables x1 and x2

F F
d F ( x1 , x2 )  d x1  d x2
 x1 x2
 x2 x1
Similarly, for energy function Wfld(λ, x)

W fld  W fld
d W fld ( , x)  d  dx
 x
x 

d W fld ( , x)  i d  f fld dx
 W fld W fld
i f fld  
 x
x 
Once we know the energy, current and more importantly force can be
calculated.
For a system with rotating mechanical terminal

f fld  T fld x 
d W fld ( ,  )  i d  T fld d

W fld ( ,  )
T fld  
 
Example :The magnetic circuit below consists of a single-coil stator and an
oval rotor. Because the air-gap is nonuniform, the coil inductance
varies with rotor angular position, measured between the magnetic
axis of the stator coil and the major axis of the rotor, as

L( )  L0  L2 cos (2 )

where where L0=10.6 mH and L2=2.7 Mh and i=2ANote the second-
harmonic variation of inductance with rotor angle θ.
 DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE AND TORQUE FROM
COENERGY

d W fld ( , x)  i d  f fld dx
Mathematically manipulated to define a new state function known as
the COENERGY, from which force can be obtained directly as a
function of current.

 (i, x)  i   W fld ( , x)
W fld
 (i, x)  d ( i )  d (W fld ( , x))
d W fld
 (i, x)  d i  id  i d  f fld dx
d W fld

 (i, x)   di  f fld dx
d W fld

Note that energy and coenergy equal

for linear systems.
 
W fld 
 W fld
 (i, x) 
d W fld di  dx
i x
x i

 (i, x)   di  f fld dx
d W fld

 (i, x)
W fld  (i, x)
W fld
 f fld 
i x
x i

i
 (i, x)    (i, x) di
W fld
0
In field-theory terms, for soft magnetic materals (B=0
when H=0)

 H0 
     B dH  dV
W fld  
V 0 

For permanent magnet materials (B=0 when H=Hc)

 H0 
     B dH  dV
W fld

V  Hc


Effect of x on the energy and coenergy of a singly-excited device: (a)
change of energy with  held constant; (b) change of coenergy with i held
constant. Figure 3.11
 Energy flow in Electromechanical Systems

ohmic / ironlosses Gross Mech . F.Vdt =Tmdt

Net Mech =Tsdt

Electrical Coupling Mech.

Sources Field sink
Total Conversion
Process Mech Losses
net.input
Gross.input
 eidt
 vidt Mechanicallosses Gross elec o/p. eidt

Net electrical Output vidt

Mechanic Coupling Mech.

al S c. Field sink
Total Conversion
Process Electrical Losses
net.input
Gross.input
 Tsdt
 Tmdt
Example 3.5: For the relay below, find the force on the plunger as a
function of x when the coil is driven by a controller which produces a
current as a function of x of the form
x
i ( x)  I 0   A
d 
Example 3.6: The magnetic circuit in the figure is made of high-permeability electrical steel.
The rotor is free to turn about a vertical axis. The dimensions are shown in the figure.
a) Derive an expression for the torque acting on the rotor in terms of the dimensions and
the magnetic field in the two air gaps. Assume the reluctance of the steel to be negligible
and neglect the effects of fringing.
b) The maximum flux density in the overlapping portions of the air gaps is to be limited to
approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation of the steel. Compute the maximum
torque for r1=2.5 cm, h=1.8 cm, and g=3 mm.
 MULTIPLY-EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS

Many electromechanical devices have multiple electrical terminals and

Single Mechanical Outputs
USING ENERGY FUNCTON:
d W fld (1 , 2 ,  )  i1 d1  i2 d2  T fld d
2 0 10
W fld (10 , 20 ,  0 )   i2 (1  0, 2 ,   0 ) d2   i1 (1 , 2  2 ,   0 ) d1
0
0 0

For magnetically linear systems

1  L11 i1  L12 i2
2  L21 i1  L22 i2

L22 1  L12 2  L21 1  L11 2

i1  i2 
D D

D  L11 L22  L12 L21

Integration path to obtain Wfld(1 , 2 , 0).

0 0
 L22 1  L12 2
i1  0
D
W fld (0 , x0 )   i ( , x0 ) d
 L21 1  L11 2
i2  0
D
Energy For this Linear System

Hence for 1ST integral Path Change in 1=0

2 0 10
L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 1  L12 ( 0 ) 20
W fld (10 , 20 ,  0 )   d2   d1
0 D( 0 ) 0 D( 0 )

L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 2 L12 ( 0 )

W fld (10 , 20 ,  0 )  20  10  10 20
2 D( 0 ) 2 D( 0 ) D( 0 )
W fld
T fld  
 1 , 2
 USING COENERGY FUNCTON:

 (i1 , i2 ,  )  1 di1  2 di2  T fld d

d W fld
i2 0 i10
 (i10 , i20 ,  0 )   2 (i1  0, i2 ,    0 ) di2   1 (i1 , i2  i20 ,    0 ) di1
W fld
0 0

1  L11 i1  L12 i2

2  L21 i1  L22 i2

L11 ( 0 ) 2 L22 ( 0 ) 2
 (i10 , i20 ,  0 ) 
W fld i10  i20  L12 ( 0 ) i10 i20
2 2


W fld
T fld 
 i1 ,i2
 i12 d L11 ( ) i22 d L22 ( ) d L12 ( )
T fld    i1 i2
2 d 2 d d
For a general n electrical terminal

 1   L11 L12  L1n   i1 

   L L22  L2 n  i2 
 2    21 λ  L( ) I
         
    
n   Ln1 Ln 2  Lnn  in 

1 T 1 T d L( )
  I L( ) I
W fld T fld  I I
2 2 dθ
 Doubly Excited Magnetic Field System

If Magnetic saturation is
negligible then
1=L1i1+M12i2
2=L2i2+M12i1
For Loss less system
If Rotor is held constant
Wmech =0
Wele=Wfield

Wfield =i1d1 +i2d2

L1=N12/S1 L2=N22/S2 and M12=M21=N1N2/S12
Cont.
Cont..

d Welec  d Wmech  d W fld  Te d r  d W fld

 Cont..
1 2 1 2
i dL1  i dL2  2i1i2 dM 12  T fld d r  i1 dL1  i2 dL2  i1i2 dM 12
2
1
2
2
2 2

i12 d L11 ( ) i22 d L22 ( ) d L12 ( )

T fld    i1 i2
2 d 2 d d
Doubly Excited Linear System

2 2
i d L11 ( x) i d L22 ( x) d L12 ( x)
f fld  1
 2
 i1 i2
2 dx 2 dx dx
Example 3.7: In the figure, the inductances in henrys are given as
L11=(3+cos 2θ)x10-3; L12=0.3 cos θ; L22=30+10 cos 2θ. Find and plot the
torque Tfld(θ) for current i1=0.8 A and i2=0.01 A.
 3
T fld  (1.64 sin 2  2.4 sin  )  10
Reluctance Torque in rotating Machine

•Reluctance varies w.r.t

rotor position
•Minimum in d axis when
both rotor axis and stator
are alligned ( 0 ,pi. 2pi..)
•Maximum in q axis (0,pi/2
3pi/2..)
1 2
W fld    S
 For Linear system
Wf=(1/2) i=(1/2)NI 2
Magnetic Ckt NI= S 1 2 dS
F fld    
iWhere S is reluctance 2 d
 Direction of Torque is
dS
determined by sign of
d
It is Positive when
Reluctance is decreasing

From The reluctance curve

The reluctance Varies
Sinusoid ally with position

S=(1/2)(Sq+Sd)-(1/2)(Sq-Sd)cos(2r)
 Assume Time Varying flux = Coswt
Erms=4.44fN m
r=wrt-δ
dS
 ( S q  S d ) sin(2 wr t  2 )
d
1 2
Te   m cos 2 wt ( S q  S d ) sin( 2 wr t  2 )
2
1 2  1 1 
Te   m ( S q  S d ) sin(2wr t  2 )  sin( 2wr t  2wt  2 )  sin(2wr t  2wt  2 )
4  2 2 

Tav =0 if wr w

wr = w
1 2  1 1 
Te   m ( S q  S d ) sin(2wr t  2 )  sin(4wr t  2 )  sin(2 )
4  2 2 
 1
Tav  m2 ( S q  S d )sin( 2 )
8
Motoring Mode
1
T max  m2 ( S q  S d )
8

2δ

Generating Mode
Problem
• Determine the approximate ly the maximum torque that
the motor can developed when it is connected to 230V 50
Hz supply . If it is given that the exciting winding has
1500 turns , the inductance of winding in direct axix is
0.8H and Quardatutre axix is 0.4 H
• Sol Equation used

1
T max  m2 ( S q  S d )
8
E
m 
4.44. f .N
N2
Sd 
Ld
Torque of salient Pole Machine
Torque of cylindrical pole machine

Lstator =Ls

Lrotor= Lr
Mutual M

M12= Mmax cosr

Inductance Variation as per rotor position When
r= 0 and 2 M is Max and Variation is cosine function
`Cont..
1 2 1 2
Wfield (i1, i 2, theta )  i1 L1  i2 L2  i1i2 M 12
2 2
W fld
T fld   i1i2 M max Sin r
 i1 , i2
Cont

W fld
T fld   i1i2 M max Sin r
 i1 , i2
 INTRODUCTION TO POLYPHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

2
  p Steady-state torque equation
T    R FF sin  RF
22
 R : Resultant air - gap flux per pole
FF : mmf of the dc field winding
 RF : electrical phase angle between  RF and FF

Torque-angle characteristic.
FORCES AND TORQUES IN SYSTEMS WITH PERMANENT MAGNETS
Special case must be taken when dealing with hard magnetic material
because magnetic flux density is zero when H=H c not when H=0.
•Consider fictitious winding
•In normal operation, the fictitious winding carries NO current
•Current in the winding can be adjusted to zero out the field produced by
permanent magnet in order to achieve the “zero force” starting point.
  (i f , x)   f di f  f fld dx
d W fld

 (i f  0, x) 
W fld    dW fld
 dW fld 
path 1a path 1b
x 0
 (i f  0, x)   f fld (i f  I f 0 , x) dx    f (i f , x) di f
W fld
0 I f0

If0 is the current to zero-out the field.

0
 (i f  0, x) 
W fld   f (i f , x) di f
I f0

Integration path for calculating Wfld (if = 0, x ) in the permanent

magnet system of Fig. 3.17. Figure 3.18
Example 3.8: The magnetic circuit is
excited by a samarium-cobalt
permanent magnet and includes a
movable plunger. Also shown is
the fictitous winding of Nf turns
carrying a current if which is
included here for the sake of the
analysis. The dimensions are:
Wm=2 cm, Wg=3 cm, W0=2 cm, d=2
cm, g0=0.2 cm, and D=3 cm.
a) Find an expression for the
coenergy of the system as a
function of plunger position x,
b) Find an expression for the force on
the plunger as a function of x,
c) Calculate the force at x=0 and
x=0.5 cm.
Figure 3.19
A different solution for permanent magnet circuits:

 e   ( Ni ) eq e 
   R A   H c      R A   
 d   d d 

( Ni ) eq   H c d
Example 3.9: Figure shows an actuator consisting of an infinitely-permeable yoke and
plunger, excited by a section of NdFeB magnet and an excitation winding of N 1=1500
turns. The dimensions are: W=4 cm, W1=4.5 cm, D=3.5 cm, d=8 mm, and g0=1 mm.
a) Find x-directed force on the plunger when the current in the excitation winding is zero
and x=3 mm.
b) Calculate the current in the excitation winding required to reduce the plunger force to
zero.
Evolution of motors