Radar Imaging

GISC 6325 / GEOS 5325 Dr. Stuart Murchison

Non-Imaging Radar
Police radar, which detects the speed of passing vehicles and displays that speed on a screen, operates on the principle of the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is the change in frequency (number per unit time) of sound or light waves emitted from a moving source. The Doppler effect was explained by Austrian physicist Christian Doppler (1803-1853) in 1842. According to Doppler, waves bunch up as they approach their target and spread out as they move away from their target.

Radar (an acronym for "radio detection and ranging") is a device that emits and receives radio waves. The waves bounce off the targeted vehicle and are received by a recorder. The recorder compares the difference between the sent and received waves, and translates the information into miles per hour.

Non-Imaging Radar

To provide a polar-coordinate maplike display of targets, NRL originated the radar PLAN-POSITION INDICATOR (PPI)-the well-known radar scope with the round face and the sweeping hand-between 1939 and 1940. The PPI is now universally used by military and commercial interests around the world for the display of radar information for such functions as air and surface detection, navigation, air traffic control, air intercept, and object identification

Imaging Radar - General

RADAR = RAdio Detection and Ranging Uses the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Wavelengths used in imaging radar range between 1 mm and 1 m Longer wavelengths are used for communication and navigation.

Microwave Region

Radar Bands
Wavelength Range and Descriptions Ka, K, and Ku Bands
very short wavelengths used in early airborne radar systems but uncommon today

X-band
used extensively on airborne systems for military reconnaissance and terrain mapping.

C-band
on many airborne research systems (CCRS Convair-580 and NASA AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (including ERS-1 and 2 and RADARSAT).

S-band
used on board the Russian ALMAZ satellite.

L-band
used onboard American SEASAT and Japanese JERS-1 satellites and NASA airborne system.

P-band
longest radar wavelengths, used on NASA experimental airborne research system

Radar Bands

Imaging Radar - Advantages

Active system (works day or night). There is also passive microwave imaging (radiometer) mode. This senses surface radio-emission, which can be converted to radiant temperatures. Not affected by cloud cover or haze if l > 2 cm. It operates independent of weather conditions. Water clouds have a significant effect on radar with wavelength l < 2 cm. Unaffected by rain l > 4 cm. Can penetrate well-sorted dry sand in hyper-arid regions to a depth of about 2 m.

Imaging Radar - Operation

Transmitting antenna sends an electromagnetic signal. Target reflects some energy back to source. Receiving antenna receives reflected signal Signal is processed and image produced.

Terminology
RAR: Real Aperture Radar SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar SLAR: Side-looking airborne radar (could be RAR or SAR). SIR: Shuttle imaging radar (a SAR) 3 missions: SIR-A (1981), SIR-B (1984) and SIRC (1994) INSAR: Interfereometric SAR. Can be satellite or airborne. SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (an INSAR mapping mission)

How Radar Works

Microwave energy pulses (A) are emitted at regular intervals and focused by the antenna into a radar beam (B) directed downwards and to the side. The radar beam illuminates the surface obliquely at a right angle to the motion of the platform. Objects on the ground reflect the microwave energy depending on factors such as roughness and attitude. The antenna receives this reflected (or backscattered) energy (C).

How Radar Works

By measuring the time delay between the transmission of a pulse and the reception of the backscattered "echo" from different targets, their distance from the radar and thus their location can be determined. As the sensor platform moves forward, recording and processing of the backscattered signals builds up a twodimensional image of the surface.

Radar Geometry
In airborne and spaceborne radar imaging systems, the platform travels forward in the flight direction (A) with the nadir (B) directly beneath the platform. The microwave beam is transmitted obliquely at right angles to the direction of flight illuminating a swath (C) which is offset from nadir. Range (D) refers to the acrosstrack dimension perpendicular to the flight direction, while azimuth (E) refers to the along-track dimension parallel to the flight direction.

Near Range is the portion of the image swath closest to the nadir track Far Range is the portion of the swath farthest from the nadir track. Depression or Grazing Angle is the angle between the horizontal and a radar ray path. Slant Range Distance is the radial line of sight distance between the radar and each target on the surface. Ground Range Distance is the true horizontal distance along the ground corresponding to each point measured in slant range. Incidence Angle is the angle between the radar beam and ground surface Look Angle is the angle at which the radar "looks" at the surface, or the angle between vertical and a ray path

Radar Image Geometry - Shadow

Radar Image Geometry - Shadow

Radar Image Geometry - Shadow

Shadow is more of a problem at far range

Radar Image Geometry - Layover

Radar Image Geometry - Layover

Layover occurs when the radar beam reaches the top of a tall feature before it reaches the base. The top of the feature is displaced towards the radar sensor and is displaced from its true ground position - it 'lays over' the base. The visual effect on the image is similar to that of foreshortening.

Foreshortening
Even if there is no layover, radar returns from facing steep slopes will make the terrain look steeper than it is. This is known as foreshortening. Features which show layover in the near range will show foreshortening in the far range.

Foreshortening occurs because radar measure distance in the slantrange direction such that the slope A-B appears as compressed in the image (A'B') and slope C-D is severely compressed (C'D')

Radar Image Geometry Shadow & Foreshortening

Mt. Shasta, California

4,317 meters (14,161 feet) Stratovolcano

Target Interaction and Image Signatures

Unlike aerial photographs and satellite images which are passive remote sensing systems, in active systems such as radar, the brightness or darkness of the image is dependent on the portion of the transmitted energy that is returned back to the radar from targets on the surface. Bright areas are produce by strong radar response and darker areas are from weak radar responses. The response to radar energy by the target is primarily dependent on three factors:
Surface roughness of the target Radar viewing and surface geometry relationship Moisture content and electrical properties of the target

Surface Roughness

Specular Reflection (A) is caused by a smooth surface where the incident energy is reflected and not backscattered. This results in smooth surfaces appearing as darker toned areas on an image. Diffuse Reflection (B) is caused by a rough surface which scatters the energy equally in all directions. A significant portion of the energy will be backscattered to the radar, such that a rough surface will appear lighter in tone on an image. Corner Reflection (C) occurs when the target object reflect most of the energy directly back to the antenna resulting in a very bright appearance to the object. This occurs where there are buildings, metallic structures (urban environments) and cliff faces, folded rock (natural environments).

Radar viewing and surface geometry relationship

Different vegetation types (e.g., desert, grasslands, forests or frozen tundra) will all have different backscatter properties. In addition, the basic reflectivity of the soil, called the "dielectric constant" will change depending on the amount of water that the soil contains. Dry soil has a low dielectric constant, so that little radar energy will be reflected. Saturated soil will have the opposite effect, and will be a strong reflector. Moist and partially frozen soils will have intermediate values.

Moisture content and electrical properties of the target

By affecting the absorption and propagation of electromagnetic waves, dielectric constant strongly influence the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the terrain surface. Most common materials have dielectric constants 1-100
Dielectric constant is controlled by the amount of moisture content, hence, the return of radar signal is influenced by the amount of moisture in the soil and vegetation.
Dielectric constant 1 (by definition) 1.00054 3.5 4.7 80.4

Material Vacuum Air Paper Pyrex glass Water (20)

Increasing the moisture content reduces the penetration of the radar signal beneath the soil and vegetation canopy.

Radar Speckle
All radar images appear with some degree of what we call radar speckle. Speckle appears as a grainy "salt and pepper" texture in an image. This is caused by random constructive and destructive interference from the multiple scattering returns that will occur within each resolution cell.
Both multi-look processing and spatial filtering reduce speckle at the expense of resolution, since they both essentially smooth the image. Therefore, the amount of speckle reduction desired must be balanced with the particular application the image is being used for, and the amount of detail required.

Speckle reduction can be achieved in two ways: multi-look processing spatial filtering.

Airborne versus Spaceborne Radar

Spaceborne radar does not require a wide range of incidence angles to cover a wide swath. Airborne radar must image over a wide range of incidence angles in order to cover a wide swath.

Polarization
The photograph on the right was taken through polarizing sunglasses and through the rear window of a car. Light from the sky is reflected by the windshield of the other car at an angle, making it mostly horizontally polarized. The rear window is made of tempered glass. Stress in the glass, left from its heat treatment, causes it to alter the polarization of light passing through it, like a wave plate. Without this effect, the sunglasses would block the horizontally polarized light reflected from the other car's window. The stress in the rear window, however, changes some of the horizontally polarized light into vertically polarized light that can pass through the glasses. As a result, the regular pattern of the heat treatment becomes visible.

Radar Signal Polarization

Polarization of the radar signal is the orientation of the the electromagnetic field and is a factor in the way in which the radar signal interacts with ground objects and the resulting energy reflected back. Most radar imaging sensors are designed to transmit microwave radiation either horizontally polarized (H) or vertically polarized (V), and receive either the horizontally or vertically polarized backscattered energy.

Radar Signal Polarization

Polarizing Radar has four possible combinations of both transmit and receive polarizations as follows: HH - for horizontal transmit and horizontal receive, VV - for vertical transmit and vertical receive, HV - for horizontal transmit and vertical receive, (cross-polarized) VH - for vertical transmit and horizontal receive (cross-polarized).

Radar Polarization Example

DEMs and Radar Interfereometry

DEMs and Radar Interfereometry

Radar interferometry uses synthetic aperture radar mapping satellites to form detailed images of geological surfaces. This powerful technique can reveal centimeter-sized changes in the Earth's crust due to natural phenomena.

DEMs and Radar Interfereometry

Interferometric synthetic aperture radar, also abbreviated InSAR or IfSAR, is a radar technique used in geodesy and remote sensing. This geodetic method uses two or more synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to generate maps of surface deformation or digital elevation, using differences in the phase of the waves returning to the satellite. The technique can potentially measure centimeter-scale changes in deformation over time spans of days to years. It has applications for geophysical monitoring of natural hazards, for example earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides, and also in structural engineering, in particular monitoring of subsidence and structural stability.

Sandia Labs RTV

Rapid Terrain Visualization

This radar provides the ability to generate highly accurate map products in real-time, including digital elevation models (DEMs), orthorectified SAR images, as well as a measure of the data quality.

Dome of metamorphic rocks in the Sahara desert (Sudan)

Landsat

SIR-C radar

SIR-C Image of Vesuvius and Naples, Italy

Mt. Vesuvius, one of the best known volcanoes in the world primarily for the eruption that buried the Roman city of Pompeii in AD 79, is shown in the center of this radar image. The central cone of Vesuvius is the dark purple feature in the center of the volcano. This cone is surrounded on the northern and eastern sides by the old crater rim, called Mt. Somma. Recent lava flows are the pale yellow areas on the southern and western sides of the cone. It shows an area 100 kilometers by 55 kilometers (62 miles by 34 miles.)

The top image is a photograph taken with color infrared film from Space Shuttle Columbia in November 1995. The radar image at the bottom is a SIRC/X-SAR image. The thick, white band in the top right of the radar image is an ancient channel of the Nile that is now buried under layers of sand. This channel cannot be seen in the photograph and its existence was not known before this radar image was processed. The area to the left in both images shows how the Nile is forced to flow through a chaotic set of fractures that causes the river to break up into smaller channels, suggesting that the Nile has only recently established this course. Each image is about 50 kilometers by 19 kilometers. Red = Chv; Green = Lhv; Blue = Lhh

SIR-C image of Nile Paleochannel, Sudan

SIR-C/X-SAR image of the Mississippi River

This image of the Mississippi River in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana shows regions that are prone to flooding. The image covers an area of about 23 km by 40 km. Red = Lvv; Green = Lvh; Blue = Cvv. This site along the Mississippi River lies north of Vicksburg along the ArkansasLouisiana-Mississippi state borders. This region is characterized by rich farmland. The town in the extreme upper left is Eudora, Arkansas. The long, narrow lakes which parallel the river are called oxbow lakes, named for the U-shaped harness worn by an ox. Oxbows form when a river changes course, abandoning old channels in favor of a new course. As the river changes course, the surrounding land dries out, leaving these lakes isolated. Oxbow lakes are common in areas where rivers flow through generally flat terrain, allowing the river to easily change course. The green regions bordering the river are undeveloped forested areas.

A damaged oil tanker off the northwest coast of Spain split in half on November 19, 2002, creating a series of large oil slicks. The image shows the oil slick with RADARSAT data. Black areas indicate the location of the slick on November 18. The land is shown using Landsat falsecolor

Nov. 2002 Oil spill in Spain

Radarsat Mosaic of USA (190 images)

Radar Imaging of Cities (San Francisco)

This SIR-C/X-SAR image of San Francisco, California shows how the radar distinguishes between densely populated urban areas and nearby areas that are relatively unsettled. Downtown San Francisco is at the center and the city of Oakland is at the right across the San Francisco Bay. Some city areas, such as the South of Market appear bright red due to the alignment of streets and buildings to the incoming radar beam. Various bridges in the area are also visible. All the dark areas on the image are water. Two major faults are visible. The San Andreas fault, on the San Francisco peninsula, is seen in the lower left of the image. The fault trace is the straight feature filled with linear reservoirs which appear dark. The Hayward fault is the straight feature on the right side between the urban areas and the hillier terrain to the east. The image is about 42x58 km.

Archeology of Angor, Cambodia

The city houses an ancient complex of more than 60 temples dating to the 9th to 15th centuries. Today the Angkor complex is hidden beneath a dense rainforest canopy, making it difficult for researchers on the ground. The principal complex, Angkor Wat, is the bright square just left of the center of the image. It is surrounded by a reservoir that appears in this image as a thick black line. The larger bright square above Angkor Wat is another temple complex called Angkor Thom. Archeologists studying this image believe the blue-purple area slightly north of Angkor Thom may be previously undiscovered structures. In the lower right is a bright rectangle surrounded by a dark reservoir, which houses the temple complex Chau Srei Vibol. Image is 55x85km. Red=Lhh, Green =Lhv, and Blue =Chv.

C-Band image of Dallas

35 km (21 miles) by 26 km (16 miles)

SIR-C/X-SAR image of Mississippi Delta

The area shown is approximately 63 km by 43 km. As the river enters the Gulf of Mexico, it dumps its load of sediment, building up the delta front. As one part of the delta becomes clogged with sediment, the delta front will migrate in search of new areas to grow. The area shown on this image is the currently active delta front of the Mississippi. Most of the land in the image consists of mud flats and marsh lands. There is little human settlement in this area due to the instability of the sediments. The main shipping channel of the Mississippi River is the broad red stripe running northwest to southeast down the left side of the image. The bright spots within the channel are ships. Red = Lvv; Green = Cvv; Blue = Xvv.

USSR Landers Indicate Venus has a Rocky Surface

Venera 9, 1975

Venera 10, 1975

Venera 13, 1982

98% of the Venutian surface was mapped. Magellan finally burned up in the venusian atmosphere, in midOctober, 1994. Image at right: Blues represent the lowest surfaces followed by greens, then yellows and oranges with red being highest. High region, near the equatorial center, is Aphrodite Terra. Beta Regio, near the central left, is also elevated.