COMPUTER APPLICATION

SOFTWARE

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Introduction to Computers
• The primary objective of an organization is to satisfy the needs of its
clients. It is supposed to be effective and efficient whether it is profit
motivated or not.
• These objectives are majorly achieved through computerization of the
systems, which are fast and economical to organizations.

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Definition 1
• A computer is a high speed electronic device which when given raw data
from an input device is able to process it, stores it and output the
information.
• Definition 2
• A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user,
processes it, produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the
results for future usage.
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Definition 3
• A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of
instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process
the data according to specified rules, produce information (output), and
store the information for future use.

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Definition 4
• A computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input
from the user and process these data under the control of some set of
instructions (called programs) and gives the result (output) on the required
format and saves the output for the future use.
• A computer can process both numerical and non- numerical (arithmetic
and logical) calculations.

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Definition5
• A computer is an information-processing machine.
• It may also be defined as a device that works under the control of stored
programs that automatically accepts stores and process data to produce
information that is the result of that processing.

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• The forms of information processed include:
 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger, purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls,
etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone
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• Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and
transmitting of data.
Advantages of computers
 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of
processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs
are correct, they will always give correct output.

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• Computers are designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which
could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment are detected and their
consequences avoided in a way that is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions, computers will
produce exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning
that failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the
whole system.

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 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large
volumes of data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of
instructions per second.
 Storage – Computers occupy less storage space compared to manual records.
 High Speed In Work- A computer is a high-speed electronic machine. It
operates and processes many complex calculations and commands in
microseconds or even in nanoseconds with incredible speed.
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• Today’s computers are no more up to a calculating device as a few years
back was.
• Today’s generation of computers can understand and process lots of
instructions in just the blink of an eye which takes significant time for
humans.
• We use a computer to complete the task efficiently, diligence, and total
accuracy for our daily work.

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• It saves a lot of time, energy, and overall cost to complete a specific task.
• Due to the high-speed combination of both computers and the Internet,
you can enjoy video streaming & listen to songs without buffering most of
the time, and messaging chats and email rapidly.
• Search anything on the Internet with high speed will be advantageous for
you to gather a good amount of information by saving time.

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• The high-speed connection of a computer on the Internet saves time and
connects the people in society like hospitals, working centers, schools, etc.
 Communication- The computer with the Internet helps you express your
views and effortlessly in public without any problems through famous
communication platforms like Quora, Twitter, Reddit, etc.
• People from all over the country gather online daily, who are united by
one goal – joint gossip and mutual help. You can also communicate via
the Internet even when you are shy, modest, or a little introverted.
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• In addition, it becomes a platform for communication with their peers.
Children, teenagers, or even grew people are happy to share their photos,
films, or video clips on social networking sites.
• Here, everyone talks to each other and becomes the kind of place where
we feel the community.

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• Online services available on computers like ‘Skype‘ or ‘Zoom‘ sites are
used to communicate with colleagues, friends, family, and relatives
quickly via video call.
• Communicating devices like Wi-Fi and the Internet help you establish
communication with each other.

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 Online Earning- The computer produces a large number of money-
making opportunities and jobs every year.
 Any person with unique skills, expertise, and talents can earn money
online through the computer by serving and teaching people.
• Another advantage of the computer: With the Internet’s help, you can
work at home without leaving your home or apartment.

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• It is very convenient to work this way because such people do not need to
be dependent; they choose their schedule, job, and work as per their need
and choice.
• For the last few years of digital technology, the need for computer
professionals has reached a different level; every business and
organization needs computer experts, professionals in their workplace.
This made it easier to work to a great extent.

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• Digital business and marketing, Scientific and innovative research are
carried out with the help of a computer across the world; the digital
industry is developing many opportunities for computer-based jobs.

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Application areas of computers
 Home
• Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill
payment, watching movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media
access, playing games, internet access, etc.
• They provide communication through electronic mail.

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• They help to avail work from home facility for corporate employees.
• Computers help the student community to avail online educational
support.
 Medical Field
• Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history,
diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc.

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• Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate
operations, and conduct surgeries remotely.
• Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes.
• It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
 Entertainment
• Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a
virtual entertainer in playing games, listening to music, etc.
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• MIDI instruments greatly help people in the entertainment industry in
recording music with artificial instruments.
• Videos can be fed from computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors
are available with fabulous features.
 Industry
• Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing
inventory, designing purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior
designing, video conferencing, etc.
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• Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various
products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas.
• Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of
people through the use of computers.
 Education
• Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online
examinations, referring e-books, online tutoring, etc.
• They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education field.
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 Government
• In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining
a database of citizens and supporting a paperless environment.
• The country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted from
computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket launches,
etc.

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 Banking
• In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and
conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through
ATMs.
• Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through
extensive use of computers.

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 Business
• Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main
objective of business is transaction processing, which involves
transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
• Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can
analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of
business using computers.

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 Training
• Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees,
to save money and improve performance.
• Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and
travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

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 Arts
• Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture.
• The fluid movement of dance can be shown live via animation.
• Photos can be digitized using computers.

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 Science and Engineering
• Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in
Science and Engineering.
• Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D).
• Topographic images can be created through computers.
• Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better
understanding of earthquakes.
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• What is embedded computer with example?
• An embedded computer, which is an integral component of most
embedded systems, is a combination of hardware and software that is
designated to perform a highly specific function.
• For example, the type of embedded computer in a washing machine will
not be the same as the embedded computer in a Nikon camera.

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• Examples of embedded computers:
o Digital alarm clocks
o Electronic parking meters and parking pay stations
o Robotic vacuum cleaners (‘robovacs’)
o Smart watches and digital wrist watches
o Washing machines and dishwashers
o Home security systems
o Air-conditioners and thermostats
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 Electric stoves, pressure cookers, and tea/coffee machines
 Traffic lights
 Vending machines
 Fire alarms and carbon monoxide detectors
 Printers, photocopy, fax machines and scanners
 Digital and video cameras
 Calculators
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 Remote control gate keys
 Digital thermometers
 Motion sensors
 PDAs and hand-held computers
 Lighting systems
 GPS navigation devices
 Heart rate monitors and pacemakers
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 CD players, iPods and MP3 players
 Parking lot ticket machines
 Cash registers
 Digital signature pads
 Electronic toys
 Refrigerators and freezers

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 Electronic safes
 Wi-Fi routers
 Automobile systems (cruise control, anti-lock braking system (ABS),
transmission control, electronic fuel injection, suspensions systems, in-
vehicle entertainment systems, etc.)

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• Data:- is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide
any further information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means
"unstructured facts and figures".
• Information:- is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and
processed data.
• To process the data and convert into information, a computer is used.

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Characteristics of Computer System
• The characteristics of the computer system are as follows:−

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a) Speed
• A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to
humans while performing mathematical calculations.
• Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second.
• The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and
nanoseconds.

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b) Accuracy
• Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due
to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.
c) Diligence
• A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy.
• It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.
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d) Versatility
• Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds
of works with same accuracy and efficiency.
e) Reliability
• A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data
i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the
same result.

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f) Automation
• Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
g) Memory
• A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
• Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc.,
which are also used to store data.

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Functions of Computers
• A computer performs the following functions −
 Receiving Input
• Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens,
etc.
• Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
 Processing the information
• Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the
programs.
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 Storing the information
• After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary
storage area.
 Producing output
• The processed information and other details are communicated to the
outside world through output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

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Methods of acquiring computers
• The three main options for acquisition of computer hardware are buying,
leasing, or renting it.

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 Buying Advantages Disadvantages

• Cheaper than leasing or • Initial cost is high

renting over the long • Risk of obsolescence
run • Risk of being stuck if
• Ability to change choice was wrong
system • Full responsibility
• Provides tax advantages
of accelerated
depreciation
• Full control
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Leasing Advantages Disadvantages
• No capital is tied up • Company doesn’t own the system
• No financing is required when lease expires
• Leases are lower than rental • Usually a heavy penalty for
payments terminating the
• lease Leases are more expensive
than buying

Renting Advantages • Disadvantages

• No capital is tied up • Company doesn’t own the
• No financing is required computer
• Easy to change systems • Cost is very high because vendor
• Maintenance and insurance are assumes the risk (most expensive
usually included option)

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• Buying implies that the business itself will own the equipment.
• One of the main determinants of whether to buy is the projected life of
the system.
• If the system will be used longer than four to five years (with all other
factors held constant), the decision is usually made to buy.

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• Notice in the example in illustration below that the cost of purchase after
three years is lower than that of leasing or renting.
• As systems become smaller, more powerful, and less expensive, and as
distributed systems become more popular, more businesses are deciding to
purchase equipment.

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• Leasing, rather than purchasing, computer hardware is another possibility.
• Leasing equipment from the vendor or a third-party leasing company is
more practical when the projected life of the system is less than four
years. In addition, if significant change in technology is imminent, leasing
is a better choice.

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• Leasing also allows the business to put its money elsewhere, where it can
be working for the company rather than be tied up in capital equipment.
• Over a long period, however, leasing is not an economical way to acquire
computer equipment.

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• Renting computer hardware is the third main option for computer
acquisition.
• One of the main advantages of renting is that none of the company’s
capital is tied up, and hence no financing is required.
• Also, renting computer hardware makes it easier to change system
hardware.

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• Finally, maintenance and insurance are usually included in rental
agreements.
• Because of the high costs involved and the fact that the company will not
own the rented equipment, however, renting should be contemplated only
as a short-term move to handle nonrecurring or limited computer needs or
technologically volatile times.

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Generations of Computers
First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)
• The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass
device, which was called vacuum tubes.
• These computers were very heavy and really large in size.
• These weren’t very reliable and programming on them was a really tedious
task as they used high-level programming language and used no OS.

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• First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control
purpose.
• They were too bulky and large that they needed a full room and consume
rot of electricity.

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Main first generation computers are:
 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J.
• Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been very
heavy, large, and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von
Neumann.
• It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and
Mauchly.
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Main characteristics of first generation computers are:
Main electronic component Vacuum tube.
Programming language Machine language.
Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.
Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.
Speed and size Very slow and very large in size (often
taking up entire room).
Examples of the first generation IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1,
etc.

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Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)
• Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather
than bulky vacuum tubes.
• Another feature was the core storage.
• A transistor may be a device composed of semiconductor material that
amplifies a sign or opens or closes a circuit.

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• Transistors were invented in Bell Labs.
• The use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and with due
speed.
• It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the warmth too, which
was generated by vacuum tubes.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and
input, and output units also came into the force within the second
generation.
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• Programming language was shifted from high level to programming
language and made programming comparatively a simple task for
programmers.
• Languages used for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956),
ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959).

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Main characteristics of second generation computers are:-
Main electronic component Transistor.
Programming language Machine language and assembly
language.
Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.
Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.
Power and size Smaller in size, low power consumption,
and generated less heat (in comparison
with the first generation computers).
Examples of second generation PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and
7094, UNIVAC 1107, CDC 3600 etc.
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Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)
• During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge
transistors to integrated circuits, also referred to as IC.
• Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors.
• The most feature of this era’s computer was the speed and reliability. IC
was made from silicon and also called silicon chips.

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• A single IC, has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one
thin slice of silicon.
• The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency
were increased during this generation.
• Programming was now wiped out Higher level languages like BASIC
(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
• Minicomputers find their shape during this era.
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 Main characteristics of third generation computers are:
Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs)
Programming language High-level language
Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk
Input / output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard,
printer, etc.
Examples of third generation IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395,
B6500, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

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Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)
• In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large scale of integration LSI
circuits built on one chip called microprocessors.
• The most advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can
contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control
functions on one chip.

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• The computers using microchips were called microcomputers.
• This generation provided the even smaller size of computers, with larger
capacities.
• That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits
replaced LSI circuits.
• The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
pc from the central processing unit and memory to input/ output controls
on one chip and allowed the dimensions to reduce drastically.
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• Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing,
operating speed, and virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and
customary device.
• The concept of private computers and computer networks came into being
within the fourth generation.

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Main characteristics of fourth generation computers are:
Main electronic component Very large-scale integration (VLSI) and
the microprocessor (VLSI has thousands
of transistors on a single microchip).
Memory semiconductor memory (such as RAM,
ROM, etc.)
Input/output devices pointing devices, optical scanning,
keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
Examples of fourth generation IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple
Macintosh, Alter 8800, etc.

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Fifth Generation Computers
• The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI.
• It allows computers to behave like humans.
• It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicines, and
entertainment.
• Within the field of games playing also it’s shown remarkable
performance where computers are capable of beating human competitors.
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• The speed is highest, size is that the smallest and area of use has
remarkably increased within the fifth generation computers.
• Though not a hundred percent AI has been achieved to date but keeping
in sight the present developments, it is often said that this dream also will
become a reality very soon.

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• In order to summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it
is often said that a big improvement has been seen as far because the
speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if we mention the dimensions,
it’s being small over the years.
• The value is additionally diminishing and reliability is in fact increasing.

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Main characteristics of fifth generation computers are:

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Main electronic component Based on artificial intelligence, uses the
Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
technology and parallel processing method
(ULSI has millions of transistors on a
single microchip and Parallel processing
method use two or more microprocessors
to run tasks simultaneously).
Language Understand natural language (human
language)
Size Portable and small in size.
Input / output device Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen,
speech input (recognize voice/speech),
light scanner, printer, keyboard, monitor,
mouse, etc.
Example
CONRADof fifth generation
AKELLO Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones,
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etc.
Classification of Computers
• We can classify the computers into the following 3 categories:
a) On the Basis of Size and Capacity, [Supercomputer, Mainframe,
Mini, and Micro Computer].
b) On the Basis of Purposes, [General and Special Purpose].
c) On the Basis of Hardware Design and Type [Analog, Digital, and
Hybrid Computer].
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Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity
a) Supercomputer
• A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of
computer for processing data.
• Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge (can occupy huge
premises) designed to process vast amounts of data in a short time with
high productivity.

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• These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks.
• Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel order on these supercomputers. This
function of a Supercomputer is called Multiprocessing or Parallel Processing.
• A supercomputer’s design is complicated, like it can be heterogeneous,
combining computers of different architectures, is significantly surpassed
most existing personal computers.
• This made this machine an ultra-high-performance supercomputer.

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• Each part of a supercomputer is responsible for its own specific task, such
as structuring and solving the most complex problems requiring an
incredible amount of calculations.

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Applications:
• The uses of supercomputers are dedicated to: –
 In research and study of energy and nuclear weapons and designing
the aircraft, airplanes, and flight simulators.
 Climate research and Weather Forecasting and Prediction of Natural
Disasters.
 Spaceship and Satellite Launching.
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 Used in scientific research laboratories.
 Used in Chemical and Biological research and for highly calculation
complex tasks.
• Examples: IBM Roadburner, IBM Blue Gene, Intel ASI
Red. PARAM-1000, and CRAY-XMP-14.
• World’s first supercomputer is the Control Data Corporation (CDC)
6600 invented by Seymour Cray.

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b) Mainframe Computer
• Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high
performance computers, and multi-user, which means they can handle
the workload of more than 100 users at a time on the computer.
• The storage capacity of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed
data process as well.
• As well as handling hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
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• The mainframe is a highly efficient computer capable of simultaneously
solving complex calculations and continuously for a long time.
• These computers have several microprocessors that have the ability to
function the data at too high performance and speed.
• The mainframe is ahead of our conventional modern Personal computers
in almost every metric.

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• The possibility of their “hot” replacement in the mainframe computer
ensures continuity of operation.
• And the standard amount of processor utilization effortlessly exceeds 85%
of the total power.
• Somehow mainframes can be more powerful than supercomputers
because the mainframe supports many processes simultaneously.

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• On the other hand, supercomputers can run a single program but faster
than a mainframe.
• In the past, Mainframes requires entire rooms or even floors of whole
buildings for set up.
• In today, IBM company is leading the production of mainframe
computers.

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• Mainframe reliability is increased with development in the past 60 years.
• These computers can fix most of the hardware and software bugs.

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Applications:
Uses of Mainframe Computer:–
• Mainframe computers are mainly used by departmental and commercial organizations
like Banks, Companies, Scientific research centers, and governmental departments
like railways. These computers can work for 24 hours. Hundreds of users can work
on these computations simultaneously.
• Using the mainframe completes the tasks, Such as keeping details of payments,
research centers, advertising, sending bills and notices, paying employees, ticket
booking, maintaining details of purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details, etc.
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• Examples: IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, and CDC 6600.

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c) Mini Computer
• Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the
connection of more than one CPU.
• Thus, many people can work on these computers simultaneously instead
of a single person.
• Also, it can process with other accessories like a printer, plotter, etc.

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• Minicomputers are the medium type of computers that have more
functionality power and are expensive than microcomputers.
• On the other hand, the size, storage, and speed of minicomputers are large
but less than the mainframe and supercomputers.
• Minicomputers are made for performing multiple computing tasks at a
single point of time, instead of assigning many microcomputers for a
single task, which will be time-consuming and expensive.

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• In general, a minicomputer is a multi-threaded system (several processes
at a time) capable of supporting from one to up to 200 users
simultaneously: these computers are currently used to store large
databases, multi-user applications, and the automation industry.

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Applications:
The uses of Minicomputers: –
• The minicomputers are used as real-time applications in Industries,
bookings, and Research Centers.
• Banks also use minicomputers for preparing payroll for employees’
salaries, records, tracking of financial accounts, etc. As well as in the
field of Higher Education and Engineering.

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• Examples: PDP 11 and IBM (8000 Series).
• PDP-1 was the world’s first minicomputer, small and interactive,
introduced in 1960 by the Digital Equipment Corporation.

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d) Micro Computer
• Today we are using many computers at home is also the most common
microcomputer.
• With this invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became
possible to use computers for people personally at a low cost and
reasonable price known as Digital Personal Computer.
• The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity.
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• These computers consist of many parts like Input and Output devices,
Software, operating systems, networks, and Servers all these need to
connect to form a complete Personal Digital Computer.
• There is not only a PC or laptop are examples of microcomputers.
• Other examples of the microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA,
server, palmtop, and workstation.
• This can be installed in any work area or even at home for personal use.
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• The primary purpose of microcomputers is to keep and process the everyday tasks
and needs of the people.
• Only one person can work on a single PC at a time, but its operating system
is multitasking.
• The PC can be connected to the Internet to take benefits and enhance the user
experience.
• The development of multimedia, small equipment, optimized energy consumption,
and the LAN made the microcomputers increase in demand for every field.

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• The increase in the demand and need for microcomputers between the
people leads to the tremendous development of each part related to the
microcomputers.

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Applications:
• The uses of Microcomputer:–
• PC is being widely used in many fields like home, office, data
collection, business, education, entertainment, publishing, etc.
• It keeps the details and prepares letters for correspondence in small businesses,
creating bills, accounting, word processing, and operation of the filing systems
in a large company.
• Some of the major PC manufacturers are IBM, Lenovo, Apple, HCL, HP, etc.
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• Examples: Desktops, tablets, smartphones, and Laptops.
• The fast development of microcomputers with technology.
• As a result, today, microcomputers coming in the form of a book, a phone,
and even a clock in the name of a digital clock.

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Computer Components
• There are four major components of a computer:
 Users
 Hardware
 Software
 operating

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a. Hardware:
Definition 1
• Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a
computer system.
Definition 2
• Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make
up a computer system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.

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• Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a
computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data
storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical
objects that can be touched.
• Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer,
view the output on screen, print out our work, store and process the work.

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• The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided
into 4 major categories:-
1. Input devices.- Input devices are used to communicate with a computer.
• They enable the computer user to enter data, information & programs into
the computer.

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• They also let the user issue commands to the computer.
• An Input device converts the input information into machine
sensible/readable form.

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2. Central Processing unit – CPU (Processor).
• The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU & the Control
unit.
• The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the
memory.
• It interprets & processes all the instructions from the Input devices.

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• The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains
all the major components of a computer system.
3. Output devices.
• Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the
computer.

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• They display the results of all the information that has been processed.
• They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a
form that can be understood by people.

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4. Storage devices.
• These are devices used to store data & programs in computers. They
include; Hard disks, Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes,
Optical disks (CD-ROMs), and Random Access Memory (RAM).
• Note: All these storage devices differ in the way (technology) they store
data & the capacities of data they can hold.

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• A microcomputer consists of 4 electronic parts:
1. Input devices.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called the Processor.
3. Output devices.
4. Memory storage devices, which consist of Main memories &
Secondary memories.

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o Data & instructions to be processed are supplied to the computer
memory by the user with the help of Input devices.
o The CPU performs the desired operations on the data and the results
of calculations/ processing are communicated to the user through the
Output devices.

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o The data and/or instructions not being used immediately by the
computer are held permanently in the Backing storage, for retrieval
any time it is required by the user.

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1. Input Devices
• Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to
provide data and control signals to an information processing system such
as a computer or other information appliance.
• Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one that
the computer can work with.
• Most common are keyboard and mouse
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FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES.
• An input device performs the following functions/ tasks:
a) Accepts data & instructions from the user into the computer system.
b) Read data from the medium on which it is stored.

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c) Converts the human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable
form (i.e. a form that can be understood by the computer)
d) Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from
the user.
e) Data input can either be Online or Off-line.

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• Once the data is entered into the computer, it finally enters the Main
storage.

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Classification of Input devices.
• Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data into a
computer.
• These include:
a) Keying devices.
b) Pointing devices such as the Mouse, Trackball, etc.
c) Scanning and other data capture devices, e.g., Scanners, Digital cameras, etc.

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• Data capture devices are those devices that automatically capture data
from the source.
d) Speech recognition or Voice input devices such as Microphones.
e) Touch screen and Digitizers.

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KEYING DEVICES
KEYBOARD.
• The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions is
typed into the computer memory.
• It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by
pressing its keys.

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Types of Keyboard.
1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

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KEYBOARD LAYOUT
• The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a
typewriter.
• It contains the usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9,
and other symbols frequently used to represent data items. However, it has
some command keys for giving special instructions to the computer.

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CONRAD AKELLO 02/28/2024 126
• Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate
keys.
• When you type data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into
machine-sensible forms.

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SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.
• Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5
different groups:
 Function/ Command keys.
• These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to
F12.
• They are used to issue commands into the computer.
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• Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various
application packages, e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.
• Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their
functions vary with different programs, and are therefore sometimes
called Programmable Keys.

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 Alphanumeric keys.
• This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys
are mostly used for typing of text.
• It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital
letters, and Number keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9.

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• Along with these keys are Punctuation marks (comma, full-stop, etc)
and some Symbols.
• At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used
to separate words or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space
after typing each word).

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 Numeric Keypad keys.
• It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard.
• It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked on them in rows from the
bottom upwards.

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• The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys.
They include: the multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition
sign (+), division sign (/) & the decimal point (.).
• The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.
Note.
• The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num
Lock key is turned on.

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 Navigational (or Cursor positioning) keys.
• They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of
an application.
• They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow
Keys.

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o Arrow keys:
• To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing
document, press the Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to
the left, press the Left arrow key.
• To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the
cursor one line down, press the Down arrow key.

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o Page Up & Page Down:
• To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages,
press the Page Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page
Down key.
o Home & End keys:
• To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home
key; to move the cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.

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Editing keys.
• They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
i. Backspace key.
• It has a backward arrow marked on it.
 Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same
line).
• When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate letter
or number to the left is erased.

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ii. Delete (Del) key.
• It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to
right).
iii. Insert (Ins) key.
 Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype
mode.

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• When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace a
character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).
v. Special PC operation keys.
• They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.
• Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
 TAB key

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• It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text
cursor or a certain text at set intervals on the same line to the required
position on the screen, e.g., 10mm, 20mm, etc.
• A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows
where the next character to be typed will appear.

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 CAPS Lock.
• Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase)
letters.
When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right
hand corner of the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital
letters.
• When pressed off, all the text typed will appear in small letters.

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 SHIFT key
• This special key works in combination with other keys.
 It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key &
press an alphabet key to get the letter in its capital form.
 It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the
symbols on top of certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.

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 ENTER key (↵).
 It is used as a RETURN key.
 When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a word processor, it
forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line or
paragraph.

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 It is used to issue completion commands to the computer.
 It is used to instruct the computer to carry out (execute) a command that
has been typed or selected on the screen.

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• To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a
certain key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.
 ESCAPE (ESC) key.
• It generates special code for the computer.
• In some programs, it is used when you want to quit doing some task, i.e. escape
from or to cancel a task.

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 CONTROL (CTRL) key.
• It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g.
CTRL+”S” is used to give the command for saving the text/object.

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POINTING DEVICES.
• These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a
pointer on the screen.
• Examples of pointing devices are; Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, and
Light pen.

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 MOUSE.
• A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the
computer by controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
• A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -
1. A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.
2. A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also
enables the cursor to move on the screen as required.

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3. The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.
4. A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.
• A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small ball and is used to
control the movement of the cursor (or, a pointer) on the computer screen.

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Types of mouse
 Traditional mouse
 Optical mouse
 Cordless mouse
• The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).
• It issues commands to the computer by activating certain simple graphic images
called Icons displayed on the screen.

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 TRACKBALL.
• A Trackball works just like the mouse, but instead of moving it on a flat
surface, it has a ball fixed on its top which is rolled using the index finger.
• As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen. The user can then
click its button to execute the selected command.

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• The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that, a Trackball doesn’t
require a flat surface for movement.
• Note: Today some computers come with a trackball on top of a Keyboard
and a Mouse.

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 LIGHT PEN.
• A Light Pen is a hand-held device similar in shape to a ball-point pen, and
has a light sensitive point.
• It consists of a pen-like device called a stylus connected by a cable to a
computer terminal.
• A Light pen is used together with a graphic VDU that is able to sense light
shining on the screen using special hardware & software.

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• A Light pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the light emitted by the
display using a photosensitive detector at its base.
NOTE:- When the pen is moved across the screen, its position is sensed because
of the light it produces.
 A Light pen provides a direct input mode. It can be used to read data directly
from the source document. It allows the user to point directly to an object on the
screen, thus identifying it to the screen.

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 Light pens can be used to read bar-codes on the different items.
 It can also be used to select items from a given list of ‘menus’ displayed on
the screen by simply pointing the pen at the item required & then pressing a
button on the pen.
 Light pens are usually used as design aids - they can be used to draw images
on the screen, which can be printed. They can also be used to indicate a
point on a screen or pad, for example, to select options for drawing.

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 TOUCH-SENSITIVE SCREENS.
• A Touch-sensitive screen uses the human finger as the input medium, (i.e.
one can select items or options from a given list by touching the screen
with a finger).
• This method of input is usually used with a VDU, which is able to sense
the touched points on the screen.
• When the user touches the screen with a finger, it blocks out the light
emitted from that portion of the screen
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• . The computer detects the position of the finger.
• The screen can then determine which part is being touched, and therefore,
which selection is required.
• Touch screens are mostly used in public places like banking halls, hotels,
in airports (to provide guidance information), etc.

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Notes:
1. Both the Light pen & the Touch provide fast input modes.
2. There is no typing or printing required; however, they operate under
the influence of complex programs.

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 JOYSTICKS / GAME PADDLES.
• These are hand-held Input devices, which enable the user to interact with a
program. They are used for playing computer games.
• A Joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever.
• It is an analogue-to-digital converter where the input involves moving the
control lever sideways, upwards or downwards to control the movement
of the cursor on the screen.

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• Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for selecting an item.
• It is commonly used in playing video games.
• A Game paddle may consist of a button, which can be pressed by the user
to input data to the program.

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• When the program senses that the button has been pressed, it takes the
appropriate action, such as, firing a missile or reversing the direction of a tank.
• A Game paddle can also consist of a dial which when rotated; it conveys
information to the program.
• The program must immediately act on the information supplied by the dial
setting, e.g. a goalkeeper may be moved across the face of the goal to
intercept a shot.

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• Note: Data processing should be very fast.

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 DIGITIZERS.
• The Digitizers are input devices that convert graphical drawings or
images on the paper or other material into digital data and convey them to
the computer memory.
• Digitizers are slow, but easy to handle and errors are hardly present.

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1. GRAPHICS PADS/ TABLETS.
• Graphic Tablets are used for entering drawings directly into the computer.
• A Graphics tablet consists of a pad or tablet (that is sensitive to touch) & a
pointing device, which is similar to a ball-point pen called a stylus.
• A paper is placed on the graphic pad & the user can trace lines and draw
pictures using the pen.
• As the stylus moves on the tablet, the tablet senses the pressure on it &
translates it into digital signals giving its corresponding position on the screen.
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• It then converts this ‘pressure’ into x-y co-ordinates, which describe what
is being drawn.
• This data is then relayed to the computer, which can display the drawings
on the screen or have them printed.

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Uses of Graphic Tablets.
• Graphic tablets are mostly used;
i. In Engineering & Architectural design as it lets the user create his/her
own images. It is very easy for the user to ‘try out’ different designs.
ii. In Computer-Aided Design work as diagrams & maps can be traced
or drawn & transferred into the computer memory to be further
worked on using Graphics programs.

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iii. By Banks & Insurance companies to verify signatures. A signature
written on a pad is compared against another formerly stored in the
computer.
iv. Pads are also good at detecting forgeries.

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2. VIDEO DIGITIZERS.
• These consist of special hardware & software, which converts video
signals frame-by-frame into a digital representation in computer memory,
which can be saved on disk, if necessary.
• A sequence of frames can have graphics, cartoons, text added, etc.

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DIGITAL CAMERAS.
• A Digital camera stores its images in digital form.
• These images can then be streamed (entered) directly into a computer for
editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a special
cable.

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Types of digital cameras
• There are 2 types of digital cameras;
 One that can take still (motionless) images, i.e., photographs,
 And another that takes motion pictures (video).

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VOICE INPUT DEVICES (Speech Recognition Devices - SRD).
• Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone
connected to a computer system (through some extra circuitry) is used to
enter data in form of spoken words into the computer.
• The SRD accepts spoken commands & convert them into electronic
pulses/ signals, which can be processed by the computer.

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• The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating
each word in the vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed & filed
for identification.

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Uses of Voice Input devices.
1. Voice input is a fast & easier method mostly suitable for the
handicapped especially those with impaired hands.
2. In Security & Access control – Each person has a unique ‘Voiceprint’
that can be used for identification.
• This approach could be used in:-

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 Electronic Money transfer.
 House/ Car security using voice activated locks.
 Office security for room access.

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3. In Voice-activated toys & games.
4. In Quality control & automation (computerization/mechanization) in
factories.
• A checker whose hands are busy does not have to stop working to make
entries in log books, instead he/she can simply give a running (spoken)
comments on the goods he/she is examining.
• For example, in Japan, speech input is used to order robots about.
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5. In Automated materials handling – in airports, handler’s give spoken
commands that direct the
luggage to the appropriate conveyor belt.
6. In Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – A designer, e.g. of buildings,
working at a terminal can call up design patterns which are frequently
used, instead of having to punch catalogue numbers into a Keyboard.

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Limitations (disadvantages) of Speech Input/Recognition devices found Today.
a) Homophones – some words have same sounds.
b) Word separation- The speech must be “clipped” i.e. each word must be
followed by a short period of silence.
• This enables the device to recognize the end of each word. If this is not done, the
device might not be able to tell the difference between ‘Command” and “Come
and”, depending on the accent of the speaker.

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c) Speaker variability- The speed, tone (quality of sound), accent,
loudness and pronunciation of an individual speaker can vary voice input
is complex to develop, and it does not take care of speech related
problems such as
accents and tone.
• This implies that the device must learn the unique speech of an individual.

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d) Limited vocabulary understood & the no. of speakers they can
recognize.
• Most speech systems can recognize a limited, standard vocabulary of
spoken words.
• The simplest SRD can recognize the voice of only one speaker.

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NOTE:
• The device must also be ‘taught’ the voice patterns of the speaker. For
example, if a device can store a vocabulary of 25 words, the user will
speak the 25 chosen words into the device.
• The device then stores the patterns for the spoken words. Later, when the
user speaks a word, the device compares the pattern of the word spoken
with those patterns it had previously stored.

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• If a match is found, the word is recognized. If not, the speaker may be
requested to repeat the word or use a synonym (a word that means almost
the same thing).

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e) The response rates of these devices are still relatively slow.
• When you compare the no. of words in English & the total no. of words
that can be said at a given point, show that speech recognition is slow.
f) Speech input is complex to develop & is still at the early stages of
development.

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SCANNING DEVICES.
• These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly.
IMAGE SCANNERS.
• A Scanner is used to input pictures or photographs into the computer. This
is because a Keyboard or a Mouse cannot perform these tasks.

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• Scanners are usually used to capture existing documents in an electronic
form into the computer for further processing or incorporating into other
documents.
• It converts text & graphics into machine sensible format. Once the text &
graphics are scanned, the images can be manipulated by changing the
colors, the sharpness and contrast.

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• Types of scanners
 Page scanner:
• This is a desktop machine that looks like a small photocopier. It scans a
whole page at a time.
• An example is the Flatbed scanner.
• Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real object or a picture by placing
it on a glass plate exactly the way a photocopying machine works.
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• The text or the picture scanned is displayed on the screen or saved so that
one can edit or print it.
 Hand scanner:
• A Hand scanner is held in the hand and passed over a document.

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NOTE:
• Scanners are very useful when large amounts of existing documents need
to be converted into electronic form for feeding into a computer system.
• For example, if the contents of the Bible are to be entered into a computer
system, you can either type everything using a Word-processor, or scan
each of the pages and import them into a word-processor, which is faster
and also more accurate.

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• Each character is compared to all known shapes or patterns so that the
appropriate code can be entered into the computer.

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DOCUMENT READERS.
• A Document reader is an input device, which can read data directly from
source documents, such as bank cheques, & convey it to the computer in
form of electronic signals.
• Types of codes on documents that can be recognized by a Document
reader include:-

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 Marks – short lines made by hand, usually in pencil on a document.
 Characters – hand-written (e.g. on meter-reading) or printed in magnetic
ink on cheques.
 Printed lines – e.g. the bar codes.
• Document readers can be classified into; Optical readers and Magnetic
Readers.

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o Optical Readers.
• Optical readers use the principles of light to sense the document contents
or to capture data.
• A special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object,
image or text which needs to be entered into the computer.

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• The reader converts the data into digital form, and then passes it to the
computer for processing.
• There are 2 types of Optical readers: Optical Character Reader (OCR)
& Optical Mark Reader (OMR).

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o Magnetic Readers.
• They use the principles of magnetism to sense the document characters
that have been written using magnetized ink.
• Example; Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).

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 OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR).
• Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a data capture technique,
which enables the computer to read printed or hand-written documents
directly.
• The characters are formed onto the document by a Typewriter or computer
Printer using a special type font.
• Handwriting can also be recognized if the characters have been
carefully/well formed.
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• The reading is done by OCR, which can be connected directly to the
computer. An OCR is able to distinguish one character from another by its
shape.
• As the OCR reads/ scans the document, each character reflects different
amounts of light, which is sensed by the OCR using a photoelectric
device & converts the shape sensed into electronic signals.

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• These signals represent a particular pattern.
Note:- The Reader has a memory that stores reference patterns for a given
character set or font.
• The sensed pattern is then compared with the stored patterns of the
characters, which the reader can recognize.
• If a match is found, the character sensed is identified; otherwise, the
document may be rejected by the reader.

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OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR).
• The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. These
positions can then be marked by, let say, a pencil.
• The OMR detects the presence or absence of a mark on a form by sensing
the reflected light of these positional marks.

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• The reader is then used to convert the marks into computer-readable data
& send the value of the sensed data into the computer in form of
electronic signals.
• The accuracy of an OMR depends on the marks being made properly. If a
mark is too light or not solid enough, it may be misread, giving rise to
errors.

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MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER (MICR).
• MICR is the machine recognition of characters printed with
Magnetic Ink.
• The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron (II)
Oxide that gives them a magnetic property.

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• After forming the characters onto the document, the inked characters are
magnetized by passing the document under a strong magnetic field.
• During the reading process, the magnetized characters cause current to
flow through the read head depending on the magnetized surface area
occupied by individual characters.
• The reader differentiates characters depending on the magnetic patterns
that bring different amount of currents.

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• The MICR recognizes these patterns & conveys them into the computer in
form of electrical signals.

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BAR-CODE READER.
• This is a device used to read the bar-codes printed on many items in
Supermarkets & Pharmacies.
• Each item is given a code known as Bar-code (a Bar-code is a set of
parallel bars of varying thickness & spaces of varying widths representing
a number code).
• A space represents a “0” while a bar represents a “1”. The coded data can
be read by using the principles of light.
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• A computer is used to store the code of the items, item description,
price, amount in stock, etc.

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