Temperature & Heat

Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should learn
1. Temperature and Temperature Scales
2. Thermal Equilibrium
3. Thermal Expansion
4. Quantity of Heat
5. Calorimetry and Phase Changes
6. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of the body
• Many properties of matter we can measure depend on temperature.
• Temperature also related to kinetic energies of molecules of material.

Thermometer – a device used to measure temperature

Temperature scales:
1. Celsius
2. Fahrenheit
3. Kelvin
4. Rankine
 Conversion from one temperature scale to another:
• To convert from 0 C to 0F  To convert from 0C to K
9 TK  TC  273.15 (17.3
TF  TC  32 (17.1)
5

• To convert from 0F to 0C • To convert from 0F to 0R

5 TR = TF + 460
TC  (TF  32) (17.2)
9
• In SI nomenclature, “degree” is not used with Kelvin scale.
• 293 K is read as “293 kelvins”, not “degrees Kelvin.
 Example:
1. Convert 20.00C to 0F, 0R and K
2. Find the temperature difference of T1 = 20.0oC and T2=40.0oC in

a. C0
b. K
Temperature Difference
• It is important to differentiate between an actual temperature
and a temperature difference.
• Actual temperature of 20°C is stated as 20°C (twenty degrees
Celsius).
• A temperature difference of 20° is 20C° (twenty Celsius degrees).

Absolute zero temperature

The lowest possible temperature
0K = -2730C 0oR = -4600C
Thermal Equilibrium
• when the reading on the temperature reaches a steady value,
the condition of thermal equilibrium has occurred.

Insulator
• An insulator reduces the exchange of heat between two
systems.
• An ideal insulator is a material that permits no interaction at
all between two systems, thus preventing thermal equilibrium
from being reached.
• Examples of insulators: wood, plastic foam, or fiberglass.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• It is an important property
of thermal equilibrium
• Consider three systems:
A, B and C.
Thermal Expansion
• Most materials expand when their temperature
increases.
• Examples of thermal expansion:
– expanding liquid in a liquid-in-tube thermometer,
– bending bimetallic strips,
loosening a metal jar lid by running hot water over it
Linear Expansion
• A rod of material has a length L0 at some initial temperature T0.
• When temperature changes by ΔT, length changes by ΔL
• Experiments show that if ΔT is not too large (less than 100CC or
so), ΔL is directly proportional to ΔT.
• If two rods made of same material have same temperature change,
but one is twice as long, then change in its length is also twice as
great.
• Therefore, ΔL must also be proportional to L0.
Linear Expansion
L   L0 T (17.6)

L  L0  L  L0   L0T  L0 1   T  (17.7)
•The constant  which describes the thermal expansion properties of a
particular material is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
•Its units are K-1 or (C°)-1.
•Thus L could be the thickness of a rod, side length of a square sheet, or the
diameter of a hole.
 Misconception:
• If a solid object has a hole in it, what happens to the size of it when the
temperature of the object increases?
• Common misconception is that the material will expand into the hole.
• The fact is the hole expands along with the object.
• Every linear dimension of an object changes in the same way when
temperature changes.
Volume Expansion
• Increasing temperature usually causes an increase in volume for both solid
and liquid materials.
• Experiments show that if temperature change ΔT is not too great (less than
100C°), the increase in volume ΔV is approximately proportional to both
temperature change ΔT and initial volume V0;

V   V0T (17.8)
 = 3
Example 1.
What is the increase in length of a steel girder that is 10m long at 5oC when
its temp rises to 30oC? αsteel = 1.2 x10 -5/Co
2. Calculate the volume of water that overflows when a Pyrex beaker filled to
the brim with 250cm3of water at 20 0C is heated to 80 0C
b water = 2.1 x10 -4/Co, b glass = 0.09 x10 -4/Co
Thermal stress
• If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent expansion or
contraction, then change the temperature, tensile or
compressive stresses called thermal stresses develop.
• Resulting stresses may become so large that the rod is
deformed permanently.
• Engineers must account for thermal stress when designing
structures.
• Thus, we can see gaps between sections for concrete structures
such as bridges and highways, filled with flexible material.
Thermal stress
• tensile stress F/A
3. Steel train rails are laid in 12m long segments placed end to end. The
rails are laid end to end on a winter day when their temperature is -2oC.
αsteel = 1.2 x10 -5/Co
a. How many space must be left just between adjacent rails if they are just to
touch on a summer day when their temperature is 33oC?
b. If the rails are originally laid in contact, what is the stress on them when the
temp is 33oC. Y = 20 x1010Pa
Heat (Q)
• Energy transfer takes place solely because of a temperature
difference called heat flow or heat transfer.
• Energy transferred in this way is called heat.
Heat always refer to energy in transit from one body or system to
another because of a temperature difference, never to the amount of
energy contained within a particular system.
 Units of Heat
1 cal = 4.186J
1 kcal = 4186 J
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1055 J
The calorie is not a fundamental SI unit, instead joule is used as the
basic unit of energy in all forms, including heat.

Heat depends on:

1. Amount of substance
2. Types of substance
Heat due to change in temperature:

Where: Q – heat - cal, J

m – mass of substance, g, kg
ΔT - change in temperature, C0, K
c – specific heat capacity of the substance

Specific heat (c) – the amount of heat needed to be removed or added to a unit mass of substance to
change its temperature by 10.
The greater the c the smaller the change in temp.
Specific heat
Substance KJ/kg C0 Kcal/ kg 0C
Water 4.19 1
Wood 1.76 0.42
Copper 0.39 0.093
Iron 0.46 0.11
Ice 2.09 0.5
Lead 0.13 0.30
Heat flows from hotter body to colder body.

If several bodies at different temperature are mixed. The mixture will come to a
final common temperature. The heat absorbed by some bodies is equal to the amount
of heat given up by the other bodies.

Q lost is negative ---- by the hotter body

Q gained is positive---- by the colder body
Q lost + Q gained = 0
Example
1. How much heat must be removed from 100 kg of aluminium in
order to cool it from 80oC to 20oC?
Cp al = 0.92 KJ/Kg C0
2. If 0.30 kg of coffee at 90 0C is poured into a 0.40Kg cup made of glass at 20 0C, if
no heat is transferred to or from the surrounding, what is the final temp of the
coffee?
C glass = 0.84KJ/Kg Co , C coffee = 4.19 KJ/Kg Co
Heat due to change in phase
Heat of fusion:
Q f = m Lf
Lf – latent heat of fusion
Amount of heat which must be added to a unit mass of substance to change it
from solid to liquid at melting point

Lf of ice = 80 cal/ g
Heat of vaporization:
Qv = m Lv
Lv – latent heat of vaporization
Amount of heat which must be added to a unit mass of substance to change it from liquid to vapour.

Lv of water = 540 cal/g

Sublimation
Some substances can sometimes change directly from solid to the
gaseous phase, a process we called sublimation.
3. How much heat is needed to change 100g of ice at -10 0C
to steam at 120 0C?
4. A physics student wants to cool 0.25 kg of Diet Coca-Cola
(mostly water), initially at 25C, by adding ice initially at -
20C. How much ice should she add so that the final
temperature will be 0C with all the ice melted if the heat
capacity of the container may be neglected?
 Heat Transfer
Three Mechanism of Heat Transfer:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

• Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact.

• Convection depends on motion of mass from one region of space to
another.
• Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, without any
need for conducting medium.
Conduction
• If you hold one end of a copper rod and place the other in a
flame, you can feel the end you’re holding get hotter and
hotter.
• The heat was transferred to the cooler end via conduction.
• For metals, the mechanism used to conduct heat is the transfer
of energy by “free” electrons within the metal.
• As the electrons travel at high speed, thus the rate of heat
transfer is also high, making metals a good heat conductor.
Rate of Heat Transfer for Conduction

H – Rate of heat transfer or Heat current

A – cross sectional area
L – thickness
T H – hotter temperature
T C – colder temperature
k called the thermal conductivity of the material

Materials with large k are good conductors of heat, those

with small k are poor conductors or insulators.
For thermal insulation in buildings, engineers use the concept of thermal
resistance, R.

Units of H are units of energy per unit time, or power; the heat current SI
unit used in the watt
(1 W = 1 J/s)
Example:
1. A Styrofoam box used to keep drinks cold at a picnic has a total wall area of
0.80m2 and wall thickness of 2.0cm. It is filled with ice, water, and cans of softdrinks
at 00C. What is the rate of heat flow into the box if the temperature of the outside
wall is 30.00C? How much ice melts in one day? kstyrofoam = 0.01W/m-K
Conduction between two rods:
2. A steel bar 10.0 cm long is welded end-to-end to a copper bar 20.0 cm long.
Both bars are insulated perfectly on their sides. Each bar has a square x-section,
2.00 cm on a side. The free end of the steel bar is maintained at 100°C by placing
it in contact with steam, and free end of copper bar is maintained at 0°C by
placing it in contact with ice. Find the temperature at the junction of the two bars
and the total rate of heat flow.
K steel = 50.2 W/ m K
K copper = 385 W/ m K
3. From example 2, Suppose the two bars are separated. One end of
each bar is maintained at 100°C and the other end of each bar is
maintained at 0°C. What is the total rate of heat flow in the two bars?
Convection
• It is the transfer of heat by mass motion of a fluid from one
region of space to another.
Examples: hot-air and hot-water home heating systems, cooling
system of an car engine, flow of blood in our bodies.
• Forced convection occurs if the fluid is circulated by a blower or
pump.
• If the fluid flow is caused by differences in density due to thermal
expansion, we call it natural convection or free convection.
Radiation
• Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such
as visible light, infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• This type of heat transfer is independent of medium, that is, it
would occur even though there is a vacuum between the hot
body and you.
• Every body, even at ordinary temperatures, emits energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation
• Rate of energy radiation from a surface is proportional to the
surface area A.
• The rate increases rapidly with temperature, depending on the 4 th
power of absolute (Kelvin) temperature.
• It also depends on nature of surface and is described by a quantity
e called emissivity. It is dimensionless and ranges from 0 to 1.
• emissivity represents the ratio of the rate of radiation from a
particular surface to the rate of radiation from an ideal radiating
surface.
• Emissivity is often larger for dark surfaces than for light ones
Thus heat current due to radiation can be expressed as:

A – surface area
e – emissivity
T – temperature in Kelvin
s is a fundamental physical constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant.

8
  5.67040040  10 2
W/m  K 4
4. A thin square thin plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to a
temperature of 800°C. If the emissivity is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of
energy?