Bridge and culvert hydraulics

(HENG-5203)

Target group:- G5HWRE: A

Faculty of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

AWTI

Lecturer: Mesele M.
[email protected]
Mar 2023, Arba Minch Ethiopia
 Chapter One
1. Introduction

Brainstorming activity
1. Discuss the difference between culvert and bridge structures.

2. List some of the basic criteria to select the suitable location

of these structures.

2
 1. Introduction
• Culverts and bridges are highway cross-drainage hydraulic
structures those accommodate the passage of water, sediment,
natural debris in addition to both the upstream and downstream
movement of aquatic organisms.
• Culverts are submerged structures buried under a high-level
embankment usually of shorter span (< 6 m), with the top not
normally forming part of the road surface like in a bridge
structure (P. Novak et al., 2007).

3
 Cont’d…
• Culverts are also enclosed conduits
– Complete pipe,
– Elliptical,
– Pipe arch or
– Box in shape
• Constructed at a water course (stream culverts) or low points of
road where there is no definable stream but cross drainage is
required for the flow which cannot be accommodated by side
drains (relief culverts) (ERA, 2011).

4
Cont’d…

5
Cont’d…

6
 Cont’d…
• Bridges are highly costing structures that support a roadway
over the water body by means of a span.
• This type of structure does not have a constructed structural
invert (bottom) and therefore does not fully enclose the
channel that it spans.
• It may consist of a deck supported on abutments or piers,
open‐bottom box or half‐pipe, or other structural arch.
• Bridge construction was adopted in Ethiopia since 19 th
century, in 1884 bridge erected over Temchi River (a
tributary of Blue Nile) and 1886 over Awash River. 7
Cont’d…

8
Cont’d…

9
 Comparisons between Culverts & Bridges

• Comparing culverts to bridges the designer must decide:

– Which type of structure is better for a particular location
– Which analysis approach to use at a crossing (bridge with
free surface flow using GVF concepts or as a culvert with
head water based)
– Which one is preferred hydraulically, aesthetically and
economically

10
 Cont’d…
• In most of the sites, either a bridge or culvert will fulfill the
structural and hydraulic requirements.
• The structural choice should be based on:

– Risk of property damage,

– Construction and maintenance costs,

– Traffic safety,

– Environmental considerations,

– Risk of failure and aesthetic considerations.

11
 Cont’d…
• Culverts are used where bridges are not hydraulically required;
– Debris and ice potential are tolerable
– More economical than bridge (including guard rail and
safety concerns).
• Bridges are used where culverts are impractical and more
economical than a culvert to satisfy:
– Land-use and access requirements,
– Mitigate environmental concerns,
– Accommodate ice and large debris of heavy sediment loads
or moving boulders…etc.

12
 Cont’d…
• There are differences in the hydraulic assumptions and
analyses used for culverts and bridges.
• Culvert hydraulic analysis assumes
– No velocity approaching the culvert or
– In the channel immediately downstream of the culvert,
which overestimates entrance and exit energy losses and
– Tail water condition in the channel downstream of a culvert
is typically based on normal depth analysis.
• Bridge hydraulic analysis is typically based on GVF
calculations providing a more accurate water surface profile
throughout the crossing. 13
 Why studying bridge & culvert hydraulics?

• Most people imagine that constructing a bridge/culvert across

a river is entirely a problem in structural engineering.
• Studying the bridge & culvert hydraulics is important because
of nobody can be allowed to build a new bridge/culvert in a
river,
– Without first being able to prove by calculation or
modeling that the resulting backwater will not cause
flooding of land and upstream property.

14
 Cont’d…
• In addition to the nature and geometry of the river channel
the,
– Shape,

– Spacing,

– Orientation of the bridge piers and abutments will affect

the flow through a bridge and the probability of scouring
of the bed.
• Hydraulic analysis is a prerequisite for the scour calculations
& determine how much of the flooding is caused by the
bridge/culvert. 15
 Hydraulic causes of bridge & culvert failure

• Smith (1976, 1977) studied 143 bridge failures that occurred

throughout the world between 1847 and 1975. Almost half of
the failures were due to floods.
• More specifically, two factors were identified: one was scour
and the second was debris.
• Of the two, damage caused by scouring of the bottom material
around the foundation (most of the time around piers &
abutments) tends to be the most prevalent.

16
 Cont’d…
• Scour include lateral erosion of the river banks in the vicinity of

a bridge. This result in skewed angle flow approaching the

bridge, failure of the piers, abutments and highway

embankments.

• Inadequate waterway openings: - if a bridge/culvert is seriously

damaged or destroyed by flood.

• Location (site selection):-Usually the alignment of a highway

will be selected to minimize the cost of the bridge/culvert and the

impact to the stream as much as possible. 17

Cont’d…

18
 Site selection and data required

Brainstorming activity
1. Discuss some important factors to select ideally suitable site
for culvert and bridge structures across a roadway.
2. List some factors which govern the maximum length of side
drains those will be relieved by a turnout or cross structure.
3. Explain why the crossing structure should be located away
from horizontal curves in the watercourse.

19
 Site selection
• Bridge site selection is important in terms of:
– Cost of construction,
– Maintenance and
– Service life.
• The ideal site would have
– low flood levels,
– rocky banks,
– non-skewed crossing and
– straight approach roads.

20
 Cont’d…

• Normally side drains will be relieved by a turn out or cross

structure after a maximum length of about 200m (ERA,2011)
to:
– avoid exceeding capacity and causing erosion in the drain
or in the outfall watercourse.
• Ideal outfall sites are at field boundaries where there is
vegetation or stable ground to minimize the risk of
downstream erosion.
• For larger structures and watercourses the selection of site
location requires more attention. 21
 Cont’d…
• Regardless of the type of structure to be constructed, the
following criteria should ideally be met when determining a
site for water crossing (ERA, 2011):
• The crossing should be located away from horizontal curves in
the watercourse, as these areas are unstable, with the line of
the watercourse tending to move towards the outside of the
bend with time;
• If no option is available a new channel should be made in
some cases.

22
 Cont’d…
• The crossing should be at an area of uniform watercourse
gradient. If the gradient is steepening there will be a
possibility of scour, and for reducing gradient there will be
a risk of deposition.
• The crossing should ideally be at an area of the channel
with a non-erodible bed. These areas need low amount of
watercourse protection.
• The road should cross the watercourse at a point with well-
defined banks, where the stream will generally be narrower.
• The watercourse should not be prone to flooding at the
crossing point and also the skew angle shall be < 15o.
23
Cont’d…

24
 Data required

• Topographic maps:- to identify channel width, possible

crossing sites, to find the channel gradient and to indicate
floodplain.
• Geological maps, Soil maps and Geological memoirs:- provide
some details about the local geology.
• Hydrological data:-such as gauging station records, annual
maxima, stage-discharge relationship and flow-duration curve.
• Meteorological data:- rainfall depths and intensities,
temperature range and wind speed.

25
 Cont’d…
• River channel data:- roughness of the channel and floodplains
may be inferred initially from preliminary visits to the site.
• Design flood:- is defined as the flood or storm surge associated
with the probability of exceedence (frequency) selected for the
design of a highway infringement.
• The base flood:- is the flood or storm surge having a 1-percent
chance of being exceeded in any given year.
• The overtopping flood:- is described by the probability of
exceedence and water surface elevation at which flow begins
over the highway.
• Backwater:- is the increase of water surface elevation induced
upstream from a bridge, culvert, dam …etc. 26
 Cont’d…
• The highest tail water elevation which can be reasonably
expected to occur coincident with the design storm event.
• Road alignment:- cross the watercourse at 90 degrees as this
minimizes the span length of the bridge or culvert and to avoid
additional scouring.
• Location:- a site with a natural narrow channel width, at a
straight stretch of watercourse, approach roads should preferably
be straight on each side to ensure sufficient sight distances and
prevent traffic hazards.
• Existing structure assessment:- where existing roads are being
improved, existing drainage sites should already have been
provided with an appropriate structure. 27
 CHAPTER TWO

2. Culvert hydraulics
 Introduction

• Culvert structure is designed hydraulically to take advantage of

submergence to increase hydraulic capacity and used to convey
surface runoff through embankments.
• Common culvert diameters are 600mm and 900mm. Cross
culverts smaller than 600mm in diameter should not be installed
as they are very difficult to clean (ERA, 2011).
• The shape selection is based on the cost of construction,
upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height,
and hydraulic performance.
29
Cont’d…

30
 Cont’d…

• Based on construction materials used culverts can be concrete

(reinforced and non-reinforced), steel (smooth and corrugated),
vitrified clay, plastic, bituminous fiber, cast iron, wood and
stainless steel.
• The discharge of a culvert is determined by the application of
the continuity and energy equation between the approached
section and the downstream section.
• The location of the downstream section depends on the state of
flow within the culvert.
31
 Cont’d…

• Basic concepts that are important in culvert design include:

• Critical flow:- is state of flow where the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge (Fr = 1).
• Critical depth:- is the depth at the critical flow. For a given
discharge and cross section geometry, there is only one critical
depth.
• Critical slope:- a slope that sustains a given discharge at a
uniform and critical depth.

32
 Cont’d…

• Free outlet:- has tail water equal to or lower than critical depth.
For culverts with free outlets, a lowering of the tail water has no
effect on the discharge or the backwater profile upstream of the
tail water.
• Energy grade line:- represents the total energy at any point along
the culvert barrel. The total energy at any section is the sum of
flow depth, velocity head (V2/2g), and all energy losses.
• Improved inlet has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow
constriction at the inlet and thus increases the capacity of culverts.

33
 Cont’d…

• Normal flow occurs in a channel reach when the discharge,

velocity, and depth of flow do not change throughout the reach.
• The water surface profiles and channel bottom slope will be
parallel.
• This type of flow will exist in a culvert operating on a steep
slope if the culvert is sufficiently long enough.
• Normal depth:- is the depth of water at a steady, uniform,
constant velocity and flow at a given channel reach.

34
 Cont’d…

• Slop:- steep water surface slope occurs where the critical depth

is greater than the normal depth (supercritical flow).

• Mild slop occurs where critical depth is less than normal depth

(subcritical flow).
• Submerged outlet occurs where the tail water elevation is

higher than the crown of the culvert.

• Submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than

1.2D.

35
 Cont’d…

• Freeboard is a safety margin over design water level before

overflow occurs (in a unit of length).

36
 Classification of flow types at culvert
• A culvert barrel may flow full over all of its length or partly full.
• The hydraulic condition in a culvert flowing full is called
pressure flow.
• Pressure flow in a culvert can be created due to the back
pressure caused by a high downstream water surface elevation.
• Partly full flow or open channel flow may be categorized as
subcritical, critical, or supercritical.
• A determination of the appropriate flow regime is accomplished
by evaluating the dimensionless number called the Froude
number.

37
 Cont’d…

• When Fr > 1.0, the flow is supercritical and is

characterized as rapid.
• When Fr < 1.0, the flow is subcritical and is characterized
as tranquil.
• If Fr = 1.0, the flow is defined as critical.

• The same type of flow illustrated by the small dam may

occur in a steep culvert flowing partly full.
• In this situation, critical depth occurs at the culvert inlet,
subcritical flow exists in the upstream channel, and
supercritical flow exists in the culvert barrel. 38
Cont’d…

39
 Culvert flow controls (inlet and outlet control)

Types of flow control

• Control section is the location where there is a unique
relationship between the flow rate and upstream water surface
elevation.
• The characterization of pressure, subcritical and supercritical
flow regimes played an important role in determining the
location of the control section.
• The hydraulic capacity of a culvert depends upon a different
combination of factors for each type of control.
40
 Cont’d…
A. Inlet control
• Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of
conveying more flow than the inlet will accept.
• The control section is located just inside the entrance.
• Critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow
regime immediately downstream is supercritical.
• Hydraulic characteristics downstream of the inlet control
section do not affect the culvert capacity.
• The upstream water surface elevation and the inlet geometry
represent the major flow controls. 41
Cont’d…

42
 Cont’d…
B. Outlet control
• Occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as
much flow as the inlet opening will accept.
• The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is
located at the barrel exit or further downstream.
• Either subcritical or pressure flow exists in the culvert barrel
under these conditions.

• All of the geometric and hydraulic characteristics of the

culvert play a role in determining its capacity.
43
Cont’d…

44
 Table 2.1 Factors influencing culvert performance
Factor Inlet control Outlet control
Headwater elevation
Inlet area X X
Inlet edge configuration X X
Inlet shape X X
Barrel roughness X X
Barrel area X
Barrel shape X
Barrel length X
Barrel slope X
*(to small extent or X
Tail-water elevation
can be neglected)
X
45
 Flow types
Flow type I: characteristics of the flow type-I are
• Un-submerged inlet & free flow outlet,
• Critical depth at inlet,
• Partially full flow, steep slope,
• Supercritical flow at barrel and
• Inlet control.

• A weir is a flow control section where the upstream water

surface elevation can be predicted for a given flow rate.

46
 Cont’d…

Flow type II: characteristics of the flow type-II are

• Un-submerged inlet with low tail water,
• Critical depth at outlet,
• Partially full flow,
• Mild slope,
• Subcritical flow

at barrel &
• Outlet control. 47
 Cont’d…

Flow type III: characteristics of the flow type-III are

• Un-submerged inlet with tail water backing up in to outlet,
• Partially full flow,
• Mild slope,
• Subcritical flow at barrel
& outlet control.

• Existence of GVF profile is the controlling factor, critical

depth cannot occur, and the upstream water surface elevation
48
is the function of the tail water elevation.
 Cont’d…
Flow type IV: characteristics of the flow type-IV are
• Both inlet and outlet fully submerged,

• Full flow/pipe flow,

• Any slope and

• Outlet control.

• The flow rate can be estimated directly from the energy

equation. The tail water depth is assumed to be critical
depth near the culvert outlet or in the downstream channel.
49
 Cont’d…
Flow type V: characteristics of the flow type-V are
• Submerged inlet with low tail water,
• Partially full flow,
• Any slope,
• Short length of culvert &
• Orifice flow control at inlet.

• An orifice is an opening, submerged on the upstream side and

flowing freely on the downstream side.

50
 Cont’d…
Flow type VI: characteristics of the flow type-VI are
• Submerged inlet with low tail water,
• Culvert flows full /pipe flow,
• Outlet not submerged,
• Any slope,
• Long length of culvert
• & outlet control.

51
 Cont’d…

Flow type VII: characteristics of the flow type-VII are

• Submerged inlet with low tail water,
• Partially full flow,
• Outlet not submerged,
• Steep slope and
• Outlet control.

52
 Principles & criteria of culvert design

• Culvert design principles

• The following principles are specific to culverts:
– All culverts shall be hydraulically designed
– Survey information shall include topographic features,
– Channel characteristics,
– High water information,
– Existing structures, and
– Other related site specific information.

53
 Cont’d…

• Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be:

– Investigated to avoid sediment build-up,

– Designed to accommodate debris or proper provisions shall

be made for debris

– Minimum hazard to traffic and people.

• Material selection shall include consideration of materials

availability, service life including abrasion and corrosion
potentials.

54
 Design criteria of culvert

• Site criteria:- structure type selection, length and slope should

be chosen to approximate existing topography, and to the
degree practicable.
• The culvert invert shall normally be aligned with the channel
bottom and the skew angle of the stream channel bottom and
the skew angle of the stream
• The culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the roadway.

55
 Cont’d…
• Debris control shall be considered for culverts:
– Located in mountainous or steep regions
– Those are under high fills, and
– Where clean out access is limited
• Design limitations allowable headwater will be limited by the
following factors:
– Will not damage up stream property,
– Equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5 (2 for D < 1m),
– No higher than the low point in the road grade, and
– Equal to the elevation where flow can be diverted around
the culvert.
56
 Cont’d…

• Tail water Relationship

– Evaluate the hydraulic conditions of the downstream channel

to determine a tail water depth for a range of discharges.

• Calculate backwater curves at sensitive locations or use a single

cross section analysis;

• Use the critical depth and equivalent hydraulic grade line if the

culvert outlet is operating with a free outfall;

• Use the headwater elevation of any nearby, downstream culvert if

it is greater than the channel depth.

57
 Cont’d…
• Maximum velocity at the culvert exit shall be consistent with
the velocity in the natural channel or shall be mitigated with:
– Channel stabilization and
– Energy dissipation
• Minimum velocity in the culvert barrel should result in a
tractive force (τ = γdS) greater than critical τ of the transported
streambed material at low flow rates.
• Use 0.8 m/s when streambed material size is not known.
• Design features the culvert size and shape selected is to be
based on engineering and economic criteria related to site
conditions.
58
 Cont’d…
• The selection process shall be based on:-
– Durability (service life),
– Cost, availability
– Construction and maintenance ease
– Structural strength,
– Traffic delays
– Abrasion and corrosion resistance, and
– Water tightness requirements.
• Culvert skew shall not exceed 45 degrees as measured from a
line perpendicular to the roadway centerline.

59
 Cont’d…
• End treatment (Inlet or Outlet):-the culvert inlet type shall be
selected from standard details.
• Projected inlets or outlets are box or pipe culvert extensions
beyond the embankment of the roadway.

60
 Cont’d…

• Improved inlets may be considered for culverts that will operate

in inlet control to increase the hydraulic performance.
• Wing walls are used to retain the roadway embankment to avoid a
projecting culvert barrel and also used where the side slopes of
the channel are unstable.
• Provide the best hydraulic efficiency if the flare angle is between
30°and 60°
• Aprons are used to reduce scour from high headwater depths or
from approach velocity in the channel.
61
 Cont’d…

• Outlet protection (energy dissipaters): Scour holes at culvert

outlets provide efficient energy dissipaters.
• Outlet protection for the selected culvert design flood shall be
provided where the outlet scour hole depth computations
indicate:
• The scour hole will undermine the culvert outlet and the
expected scour hole may cause costly property damage.
• Rip rap erosion protection was required below this culvert.( If Fr
< 3, design a rip rap basin, and if Q < 12m3/s for each barrel).
62
Cont’d…

63
 Design using nomographs

• Using nomographs provides a convenient and organized

procedure for designing culvert. Its disadvantage is that it
needs trial and error.
• Inlet control during un-submerged inlet (the entrance
operates as a weir).

64
 Cont’d…
• Inlet control during submerged inlet (the entrance operates as an orifice).

Where:
HWi = Head water depth above inlet control section invert, m
D = Interior height of culvert barrel, m
Hc = Specific head at critical depth (dc + Vc2/2g), m
Q = Discharge, m3/s, A = Full cross-sectional area of culvert
barrel, m2
Ku = 1.811
S = Culvert barrel slope, m/m, Ku, M, c, Y = constants from
(Table 2.1 below)

65
Cont’d…

66
 Cont’d…
Table 2.2
Entrance loss
coefficient
(outlet
control, full
or partially
full)

67
 Cont’d…

• In the inlet control design nomographs, HW is measured to the

total upstream energy grade line including the approach
velocity head.
• Inlet control nomographs are shown below as Charts 2-1, 2-2
and 2-3, for concrete pipe culverts, corrugated metal culverts,
and box culverts respectively.

68
 Cont’d…

Chart 2-1

69
 Cont’d…

Chart 2-2

(1) Headwall
(2) Mitered to conform
to slope
(3) Projecting

70
 Cont’d…

Chart 2-3

(1) 30o to 75o

(2) 90o and 15o
(3) 0o
extensions
of sides

71
 Cont’d…
Example # 2.2
• The inlet of a 1.4m diameter reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) is
submerged by a flow of 5m3/s. The inlet has a Groove end
treatment with headwall. The slope of the culvert is 0.015 m/m.
(a) What is the inlet control headwater depth above the inlet
invert (flow line)? (b) Compute by using nomograph.
Example # 2.3
• Compute the inlet control headwater depth and elevation using
the nomographs. The headwater needs to be determined for a
discharge of 2.88m3/s through a 1.2 m by 1.2m concrete box
culvert. The culvert has an entrance with wing wall 45o. The
barrel has an upstream invert elevation of 30m at the inlet.
72
 Cont’d…

Example 2.2
Q = 5m3/s
D = 1.4m
HW/D = 1.35
HW = 1.89m

73
 Cont’d…

Example 2.3
Q = 2.88m3/s
B = 1.2m
Q/B = 2.4m2/s
HW/D = 1.2
HW = 1.44m

(1) 30o to 75o

(2) 90o and 15o
(3) 0o
extensions
of sides

74
 Cont’d…
• Outlet Control Nomographs (full flow): the nomographs were
developed assuming that the culvert barrel is flowing full and:
– TW > D, Flow Type IV
– dc > D, Flow Type VI
• Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered as a part of the
available headwater (HW) used to convey the flow through the
culvert.
• Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected.
Energy equation becomes:
HW = TW + H – SoL
– HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
– H = is the value read from the nomographs, m
– SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m 75
 Cont’d…
• Outlet Control Nomographs (Partly full flow):- for Type 2 & 3,
approximate method. The following equation should be used:-
HW = ho+ H – SoL
– ho = the larger of TW or (dc+ D)/2, m
– HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
– H = is the value read from the nomographs, m
– SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m
• If the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate
method shall not be used.

76
 Cont’d…

H = 0.29m

Chart 2-4

77
 Cont’d…

Chart 2-5

78
 Cont’d…

L = 93m
A = 0.36m2
Ke = 0.5 Chart 2-6

H = 2.2m
Q = 1.1m3/s

79
 Cont’d…

Example 2.4
• A 1.4m by 1.4m concrete box culvert has a length of 60m, an
entrance loss coefficient Ke of 0.2, and a roughness coefficient
of 0.012. The inlet invert elevation “Eli” is 29.5m. The outlet
invert elevation “Elo” is 27.5m. The tailwater depth at the outlet
is 2.5m and submerges the outlet. Calculate the outlet control
headwater elevation “ELHwo” and depth for a flow of 7m3/s.

80
 Cont’d…

Given
Q = 7m3/s
L = 60m H = 1.15m
Ke = 0.2
D = 1400 * 1400

81
 Design procedure
• The following design procedure provides a convenient
method for designing culverts for a constant discharge,
considering inlet and outlet control.
• Step 1:-Assemble site data and project file
a. Hydrographic Survey - Data include:
– Topographic and location maps,
– Embankment cross section, roadway profile
– Field visit (sediment, debris) and
– Design data of nearby structures
b. Studies by other agencies including Ministry of Water
Resources.
c. Design criteria: Standards and departures from standards for
applicable criteria, 82
 Cont’d…

• Step 2:-Determine hydrology, Minimum data required:- drainage

area maps and discharge frequency plots.
• Step 3:-Design downstream channel, Minimum data are cross
section of channel and the rating curve for channel.
• Step 4:-Summarize data on design form, Collect all data from
the preceding steps and record on a single design form.
• Step 5:-Select design alternative

a. See design features.

b. Choose culvert material, shape, size, and entrance type.
83
 Cont’d…
• Step 6:- Select design discharge Q d, see
a. Design limitations
b. Determine flood frequency from criteria
c. Determine Q from discharge-frequency plot (Step 2)
d. Divide Q by the number of barrels
• Step 7:- Determine inlet control headwater depth (HWi)
Use the inlet control “nomograph”
a. Locate the size or height on the scale
b. Locate the discharge
– For a circular shape use discharge(Q)
– For a box shape use Q/B
c. Locate HW/D ratio using a straight edge.
d. Calculate headwater depth (HW)
84
 Cont’d…
• Step 8:-Determine outlet control headwater depth at inlet (HWoi)
a. Calculate “TW” depth using the design flow rate and normal
depth (single section) or using a water surface profile.
b. Calculate critical depth (dc), dc cannot exceed D
c. Determine (ho) = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2
d. Determine entrance loss coefficient (Ke) from Table
e. Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H)
f. Calculate outlet control headwater (HW)
• Use HWoi = H + ho – SoL, (if Vu and Vd are neglected)
• Use energy equation at approach section & tailwater section to
include Vu and Vd, if these values are significant.
85
 Cont’d…
• Step 9:- Determine controlling headwater (HWc)
– Compare HWi and HWoi, use the higher
– HWc = HWi, if HWi > HWoi
– The culvert is in inlet control
– HWc = HWoi, if HWoi > HWi
– The culvert is in outlet control.
• Step 10:-Compute discharge over the roadway (Qr)
a. Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr)
– HWr = HWc - HWov
– HWov is height of road above inlet invert
b. If HWr ≤ 0, Qr = 0 (no overtopping)
– If HWr > 0, determine Qr (overtopping)
86
 Cont’d…
• Step 11:- Compute total discharge (Qt)
– Qt = Qd + Qr
• Step 12:- Calculate outlet velocity (Vo)
• Step 13:- Review results
Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any
of the following will be exceeded, repeat Steps 5 through 12.
– The barrel must have adequate cover
– The length should be close to the approximate length
– The headwalls and wing-walls must fit site conditions
– The allowable headwater should not be exceeded and
– The allowable overtopping flood frequency should not be
exceeded

87
 Cont’d…

• Step 14:- Plot performance curve

• A performance curve is a plot of headwater depth or elevation
versus flow rate.
a. Repeat Steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges
b. Use the following upper limit for discharge

– Q100 if Qd ≤ Q100

– Q500 if Qd > Q100

– Qmax if no overtopping is possible

88
 Cont’d…
• Step 15:- Related designs
• Consider the following options (design features and related
design):
– Tapered inlets if culvert is in inlet control and has limited
available headwater.
– Flow routing if a large upstream headwater pool exits.
– Energy dissipaters if Vo is larger than the normal V in the
downstream channel.
– Sediment control storage for sites with sediment concerns
such as alluvial fans.
• Step 16:- Documentation
• Prepare report and file with background information 89
 Cont’d…
Example (follow the Design Procedure Steps)
• Step 1: Assemble site data and project file
Site survey project file contains:

Figure Cross-Section
– Roadway profile and
– Embankment cross-section
• Design criteria
– 50-year frequency for design and 90
 Cont’d…
• Step 2: Determine hydrology
– Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
– Q100 = 14.16m3/s
• Step 3: Design downstream channel
So = 0.025
n = 0.06
Side slope 1H: 1V

Figure Cross-Section of Channel

• Points Elevation, m
1 56.86
2 54.62
3 54.62
4 56.86 91
 Cont’d…
• The rating curve for the channel calculated by normal depth yields: (Q
= (1/n)AR2/3S1/2)
Q (m3/s) TW (m) V (m/s)
2.80 0.72 1.04
5.60 0.97 1.45
8.50 1.08 1.93
11.33 1.2 2.24
14.16 1.36 2.39
Step 4: Summarize data on design form
Step 5: Select design alternatives
• Shape: - box Size -2100 mm by 2100 mm
– Material: - concrete
92
– Entrance: - Wing walls, 45o bevel, rounded
 Cont’d…
• Step 6: Select design discharge
Qd = Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
• Step 7: Determine inlet control headwater depth (HWi)
use inlet control monograph Chart 2.3
– a. D = 2.1 m
– b. Q/B = 11.33/2.1 = 5.4m2/s
– c. HW/D = 1.1 for 45o bevel (Chart 2.3)
– d. HWi = (HW/D)*D = (1.1)*2.1m = 2.3m (Neglect the
approach velocity)
• Step 8: Determine outlet control headwater depth at inlet (HWoi)
– a. TW = 1.2 m for Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
– b. dc = 1.44 m from (Yc = (q2/ g)1/3) 93
 Cont’d…
– c. (dc + D)/2 = (1.44 + 2.1)/2 = 1.77 m
– d. ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2
ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.77 m
– e. Ke = 0.2 from Table 2.2 for Wing-walls, 45o bevel, rounded
– f. Determine (hL) – use Chart 2-6
KE scale = 0.2, culvert length (L) = 90 m
n = 0.012 same as on chart, area = 4.41m2
H = 0.55 m
– g. HWoi = H + ho - SoL = 0.55 + 1.77 - (0.015)*90 = 0.97m
• HWoi is less than 1.2D, but control is inlet control, outlet control
computations are for comparison only.
94
 Cont’d…

• Step 9: Determine controlling headwater (HWc)

– HWc = HWi = 2.3m > HWoi = 0.97 m

– The culvert is in inlet control

• Step 10: Compute discharge over the roadway (Qr)

– a. Calculate depth above the roadway:

HWr = HWc - HWov = 2.3m – 4m = -1.7m

– b. If HWr ≤ 0, Qr = 0

• Step 11: Compute total discharge (Qt)

– Qt = Qd + Qr = 11.33 m3/s + 0 = 11.33 m3/s 95

 Cont’d…
• Step 12: Calculate outlet velocity (Vo) and depth (dn) inlet control
a. Calculate normal depth (dn):
Q = (1/n)A R2/3S1/2 = 11.33 m3/s
= (1/0.012)*(2.1*dn)[(2.1*dn)/(2.1+2dn)]2/3 *(0.015)0.5
use dn = 0.87 m,
b. A = 2.1m*0.87m = 1.827 m
c. Vo = Q/A = 11.33/1.827 = 6.2 m/s
• Step 13: Review results
• Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if
any of the following are exceeded repeat, steps 5 through 12.

96
 Cont’d…

– barrel has (4m – 2.1m) = 1.9m of cover

– L = 90m
– headwalls and wing-walls fit site
– allowable headwater (3.7m) > 2.3 m is ok and
– overtopping flood frequency > 50-year
• Step 14: Plot performance curve

Use Q100 for the upper limit, Steps 6 through 12 should be repeated
for each discharge used to plot the performance curve

97
Cont’d…

98
 Cont’d…
• Step 15: Related designs
Consider the following options (Design Features, and Related
Designs)
a) Consider tapered inlets, culvert is in inlet control and has
limited available headwater
– No flow routing, a small upstream headwater pool exists
– Consider energy dissipaters since Vo = 6.2m/s > 2.24 m/s in
the downstream channel
– No sediment problem
• Step 16: Documentation
Report prepared and background filed 99
CHAPTER THREE

3. Bridge hydraulics
 Objectives of bridge hydraulics

• To understand:
– The effect of bridge on river flow
– Nature of flow transitions through bridges
– Hydraulic performance of bridge
– Bridge scour
• From a hydraulic perspective:
– Bridges are important structures to pass over rivers
– Part of a stream crossing system that includes the approach
roadway, relief openings and the structure (substructure &
superstructure)
– Structures, with span > 6m, that transport traffic over
waterways.
101
 3.1 Introduction

• Studying the bridge hydraulics is important to:

– Check the effect of constructing the bridge on the upstream
reach
– Hydraulically inefficient bridge could cause flooding
upstream and extremely damaging a large number of
properties.
– A properly designed bridge is one that balances the cost of
the bridge with concerns of safety, impacts to the
environment and regulatory requirements.
– Proper hydraulic analysis and design of bridges is as vital
as structural design.
102
 Hydraulic analysis
Hydraulic analysis of bridge involves the following:
 Determining the backwater surface profile
 Determining the effects on flow distribution and
velocities
 Estimating scour potential
The deliverables of the hydraulic analysis of bridge involves
the following
 Location and orientation of the bridge
 Bridge span and piers spacing if any
 Type/shape of piers and abutment
 Bridge profile and lower chord invert level
 Recommended foundation levels (scour calculations)
 Protection extent (upstream and downstream).
103
Hydraulic design flow chart

104
 Cont’d…
• Design flow calculations
– Determine the design return period
– Pick out the design flow corresponding to the obtained design
return period

105
 Cont’d…
Determination of return period based on risk analysis
Risk:- is simply defined as the probability of failure
• Within n years we have two events only: occurrence of failure or
no failure
• Probability of failure + Probability of no failure at all = 1
i.e Probability of failure in n years = 1 – probability of no failure at
all.
• Probability of no failure at all in n years = (1 – 1/R.P.)n
Risk ~ 1 – (1 – 1/R.P.)n
Pick out the design flow corresponding to the obtained design return
period
Example:- Estimate the risk related to adopting a design return
period of 50 years during the first 30 year period.
Risk ~ 1 – (1 – 1/R.P.)n
~ 1 – (1 – 0.02)30
~ 0.455 or 46% 106
 Cont’d…
• If this is too large risk, then increase design level to the 100
year where p = 0.01
Risk ~ 1 – (0.99)30
~ 0.26 or 26%

107
 Bridge location
• Generally the stream crossing location is primary selected during
the planning phase of a highway project.
• But the final location should not be confirmed unless you obtain
the detailed survey information and after completing the
preliminary hydraulic studies.
• The crossing should: minimize skew, be located at the narrowest
portion of the flood plain, be located on a stable reach of stream,
minimize impacts of meander migration and have appropriately
located auxiliary/relief openings (if needed).
• Locate and center the bridge on the main channel portion of the
entire floodplain.
108
Cont’d…

109
 Cont’d…

• The need for auxiliary waterway openings, or relief openings,

arises on streams with wide floodplains.
• The purpose of the openings is to pass a portion of the flood
flow that travels in the floodplain when the stream reaches a
certain stage.
• The openings do not provide relief for the principal waterway
opening as an emergency spillway of a dam does, but it has
predictable capacity during flood events.

110
 The effect of bridge on a river flow
• When a bridge is placed in a river it forms a narrowing of the
natural channel and an obstacle to the flow.
• This results in a loss of energy as the flow contracts, passes
through the bridge and then re-expands back to the full channel
width.
• To provide the additional head necessary to overcome the
energy loss, the upstream water level increases above that level.
• This additional head is called the afflux, and its variation with
distance upstream is called the backwater profile.
• If the constriction is very severe, the flow is usually subcritical
with GVF upstream and downstream of the structure and RVF
at the bridge.
111
Cont’d…

112
 Cont’d…
• When investigating whether or not a bridge will be the primary
cause of flooding the hydraulic capacity of the main river
channel without the bridge (QR) should be compared with the
capacity of the bridge waterway (QWB) and the design flood
(QDF).
• Then as a rough guide:
• If QR < QWB the bridge is relatively blameless;
• If QR < QDF flooding of the floodplains would occur
without the bridge
• If QWB < QR the bridge forms is under an obstacle to flow
and may cause flooding;
• If QWB < QDF the waterway is under designed;
• If QWB > QDF the waterway is over designed or has a margin
of safety 113
Cont’d…

114
 Cont’d…
• Fig.(a) longitudinal section of uniform flow at normal depth
(YN) in a river channel with (superimposed) the surface profile
arising from the introduction of a bridge,
• Fig.(b) Plan view showing how the flow separates and forms a
vena contracta of width Ccb.
• Zone of downstream approximates a semicircle of radius “b”
radiating from the Centre line of the opening at the upstream
face.
• The maximum afflux is generally assumed to occur on the
Centre line of the channel at one opening width (span)
upstream of the upstream face of the constriction. (And at this
point lets say section-1). 115
 Cont’d…
• With wide flooded valleys (of water surface width B) section-
1 may be better located around 0.5 (B – b) upstream of the
constriction.
• After passing through section-1 the water surface is drawn
down and passing through normal depth at section-2 at (or
near) the upstream face of the bridge.
• Section-3 (at minimum width and depth) may be located either
in the opening or some distance downstream of it.
• Section-4 is far enough downstream for normal depth
conditions to have been re-established and for the flow to be
unaffected by the bridge. 116
Cont’d…

117
 Cont’d…

• Maximum afflux (H1* = Y1 – YN) or H1* = H1 – (H4 + SoL1-4).

• Piezometeric head loss is the difference in the elevation of the
water surface between two points.
• For example between sections 1 & 3:
(∆h = H1* + SoL1-3 + H3*).
• head loss across the constriction is measured between section 1
and 4, i.e.
• Head loss1-4 = H1 – H4 = H1* + SoL1-4
• Energy loss or total head loss, is the difference in the elevation of
the energy line between two points,
• Energy loss1-4 = (H1 + α1V12/2g) – (H4 + α4V42/2g)
• Where α is the dimensionless velocity head coefficient (kinetic
118
 Cont’d…

Slope variation of the energy line near a bridge & the definition of the
energy loss for uniform flow at normal depth. 119
 Cont’d…
• The increased depth upstream of the bridge results in lower
velocities and shallower energy or friction gradient (SF) than
downstream, where the reverse happens.
• The energy loss caused by a bridge can be assumed to rise from
three main things:
– Contraction of the flow caused by the abutments, noses of the
piers and when the opening is submerged the soffit or deck of
the bridge (15%);
– Friction between the water and the surface of the piers,
abutments and when the opening is submerged, the soffit of
the bridge (20%);
– Expansion of the live stream downstream of the bridge (65%)
120
 Definition of terms
• Normal crossings: is one with alignment at approximately 90o to
the general direction of flow during high water level.
• Eccentric crossings: is one where the main channel and the bridge
are not in the middle of the flood plain.
• Skewed crossings: is one that is other than 90o to the general
direction of flow during flood stage
• Conveyance (K): is a measure of the ability of a channel to
transport flow. Conveyance can be expressed either in terms of
flow factors or geometric factors.
• In bridge waterway computations, conveyance is used as a means
of approximating the distribution of flow in the natural river
channel upstream from a bridge. 121
 Cont’d…
• Width of Constriction, b: b is simply the horizontal distance
between abutment faces.
• In the more usual case involving spill-through abutments, where
the cross-section of the constriction is irregular, it is suggested
that the irregular cross-section be converted to a regular trapezoid
of equivalent area.

• An2 = Gross area of flow in constriction below normal water

surface at section-2.
• Y- = Mean depth of flow under bridge.
122
 Cont’d…
• Kinetic Energy (Velocity head) coefficient: as the velocity
distribution in the river varies from a maximum at the deeper
portion of the channel to essentially zero along the banks.
• The average velocity head computed as (Q/A1)2/2g for the
stream at section-1, does not give a true measure of the kinetic
energy of the flow.
• A weighted average value of the kinetic energy is obtained by
multiplying the average velocity head by a kinetic energy
coefficient, α1, defined as:

123
 Cont’d…

Where:

– Vi = Average velocity in a subsection (Qi /A)

– Qi = Discharge in same subsection

– Q = Total discharge in river

– V1 = Average velocity in river section-1 or Q/A1.

• A second coefficient, α2, is required to correct the velocity head

for non-uniform velocity distribution under the bridge.

124
Cont’d…

125
 Factors that affect the hydraulic performance of a bridge

• Bridge opening ratio (M): is the degree of stream constriction,

and it is the ratio of the flow which can pass unimpeded through
the bridge constriction to the total flow of the river.
• Since conveyance is proportional to discharge, assuming all
subsections to have the same slope, M can be expressed also as:

126
 Cont’d…
• In section-1, it is assumed that both the normal depth (YN) and the associated
mean velocity (VN) are constant across the full width of the channel,
– Qb = Flow in portion of channel within projected length of bridge opening
at section-1
– Qa, Qc = Flow over that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed by
the roadway embankments
– Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = Total discharge
– Kb = Conveyance of portion of channel within projected length of bridge
at section-1
– Ka, Kc = conveyance of that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed
by the roadway embankments.
– K1 = Total conveyance at section-1
– B = Width of the channel, b = Width of constriction 127
 Cont’d…
• Ratio of waterway length to span, L/b
• In general, long waterways are more efficient than short ones, so
the length of the openings is another factor that affects the
hydraulic performance of a bridge.
• This is assessed in terms of the length ratio (L/b), which is the
ratio of the water way length between the upstream and
downstream faces of the constriction, L, to the width or span of
the openings, b

128
 Cont’d…
• Eccentricity, (e):- If a bridge openings is eccentricity located in
the river channel, as shown in figure below this can affect the
flow through the constriction.

129
 Cont’d…
• Skew, (ɸ):- A simple definition of skew is shown in figure below,
in this example the longitudinal centerline of the bridge and its
approach embankments is at an angle ɸ to the banks of the
channel and the direction of flow, although the waterway
opening itself is parallel to the flow.
• For a normal or perpendicular crossing ɸ = 0o.

130
 Cont’d…
• There are two possible types of skew in addition to a normal
crossing:
• Normal crossing:- embankments perpendicular to the flow,
waterway parallel to the flow;
• Skew-1:- embankments skewed to the flow, water parallel to the
flow;
• Skew-2:- embankments skewed to the flow, waterway skewed to
the flow;

131
 Cont’d…
• Depth of flow, Y:- For a given discharge, flow can occur over a
wide range of depths depending upon the slope and geometry
of the channel, and on whether the flow is uniform or non-
uniform.
• The values of many variables, such as the Froude number (F),
conveyance (K) and opening ratio (M) are functions of the
depth.
• Additionally, the depth of flow relative to the height of bridge
opening can influence both the type of flow that occurs at a
bridge site and the hydraulic performance of the structure.

132
 Cont’d…
• Shape of the waterway opening:- may affect the hydraulic
performance of a bridge.
• For instance, a rectangular opening with a width twice its height
(b = 2Z) has a 27% larger cross-sectional area than the
equivalent semicircular arch.
• This means that at any given stage a rectangular opening will
probably have a larger discharge and a smaller afflux than an
arch of the same span.

133
 Cont’d…
• Froude number (F), subcritical and supercritical flow:
• In open channel flow F also affects the discharge through the
bridge opening.
• Flow at the critical depth (F = 1.0) can be used to optimize the
performance of a waterway, so a knowledge of the critical (or
limiting) contraction that will cause this condition is important.
• A waterway narrower than the critical contraction may result in
an unexpectedly large afflux due to the phenomenon known as
choking. Yarnell (1934) and Chow (1981) (F3=1.0)

134
 Cont’d…

• Where:

– ML - Limiting opening ratio (if a wide waterway opening is

made progressively narrower, there will be a limiting width at
which the flow in the opening will no longer be subcritical
but critical, which is called the limiting or critical
contraction).
– ε – is equated to the energy at section-3 between the piers to
that at section-4, to represent the proportion of energy
recovered.
135
 Cont’d…
• The Froude number is important to indicate where a backwater
analysis should begin.
• If (gY)1/2 > V (subcritical flow through a bridge) the upstream
reach is in hydraulic communication with the downstream reach
and the control is downstream of the constriction and this would
be the starting point for a backwater analysis.
• If V > (gY)1/2 (supercritical flow through a bridge) the upstream
reach is not in hydraulic communication with the downstream
reach and the control is upstream so the calculations for the
backwater analysis proceed in a downstream direction.
• Entrance Rounding: entrance rounding reduces the contraction of
the live stream and increases the width of the vena-contracta and
hence increases the coefficient of discharge, such as Cd. 136
 Cont’d…
• Example 3.1 Abridge has a single rectangular opening 10m wide,
which is the same width as the main river channel at low stages
(Fig. below). However during flood the bridge obstructs the flow
over the floodplains. The dimensions and Manning roughness
coefficients are shown in the diagram. Assuming uniform flow,
that the longitudinal slope of the channel and floodplains is 1 in
1000, and a depth of 4m in the main channel, estimate the
following: (a) the conveyance of the upstream cross-section, K; (b)
the velocity distribution coefficient, α; (c) the bridge opening ratio,
M.

137
 Flow classification in Bridge waterway

A. Low flow case (waterway opening is not submerged) (Type I,

II or III)

B. High flow case (waterway opening is submerged) Orifice

flow

138
Cont’d…

139
 Types of flow in bridge waterway in low flow case
There are three types of flow in bridge waterway design at low case.
Type I Flow (sub-critical flow)
o Normal water surface is everywhere above critical depth
o Actual water surface is everywhere above critical depth
o This type usually encountered in practice
o Subcritical flow condition
Backwater expression for type-I flow is obtained by applying the
conservation of energy principle between sections-1 and 4.

140
 Cont’d…

• Where: hT is the total energy loss between sections-1 and 4.

• This method was developed on the basis that the:
o Channel in the vicinity of the bridge is essentially straight.
o Cross-sectional area of the stream is reasonably uniform
and the same at sections-1 and 4.
o Gradient of the bottom is constant between sections-1 & 4.
o Applies only to steady subcritical flow
o There is no appreciable scour of the bed in the constriction
o The flow is free to contract and expand.
o Energy loss caused by constriction (hb = hT – SoL1-4)

141
 Cont’d…

• Expression equation #1 can be written as:

142
 Cont’d…
• Energy loss caused by constriction (hb) also can be expressed as
the product of a loss coefficient, K*, and a velocity head.

• Where: Vn2 - is average velocity in the contracted section based on

the flow area below NWS.
• Replacing (y1 – y4) with h1* and hb with K*α2V2n2/2g, equation #2
becomes:

• Since the analysis is based on the assumption that the cross

sectional areas at sections-1 and 4 are essentially the same, α4 can
be replaced by α1.
• Also from the equation of continuity A1V1 = A4V4 = An2Vn2,
velocities can be expressed as areas. So the expression for
backwater becomes:
143
 Cont’d…

Where: h1* = H1* = total backwater (m)

• K* = total backwater head loss coefficient
• α1= velocity head correction coefficient at sections-1 and 4
• α2= velocity head correction coefficient at constriction
• An2 = gross water area in constriction measured below normal
stage (m2)
• Vn2 = average velocity in constriction for flow at normal stage or
Q/An2 (m/s)
• A4 = water area at section-4
• A1 = total water area at section 1, including backwater (m 2)
• If piers are present in the constriction, these are ignored in the
determination of An2. (including the area occupied by any piers).
144
 Cont’d…
• The expression:
represents the difference in kinetic energy between sections 4 and 1.
• The backwater coefficient, K* can be:

• Type-II flow (water surface passes through critical depth)

• There are at least two variations of type II flow which will be
described here under types IIA and IIB.

145
 Cont’d…
• Type-IIA Flow:
• Normal water surface is everywhere above critical
depth.
• Actual water surface passes through critical depth in
the constriction.
• Type-IIB Flow

146
 Cont’d…
• Normal water surface is above critical depth at the upstream and
at the downstream (section-4).
• Both actual water surface and normal water surface are below
critical depth at the constriction and passes through critical depth
in the constriction.
• There is poor hydraulic jump before it returns to normal depth.

• Once critical depth is reached, the water surface upstream from

the constriction is no longer influenced by conditions downstream.

• This is true even though the water surface may dip below critical
depth, Y2c, in the constriction and then return to subcritical flow as
in Type-IIA. 147
 Cont’d…

• Type-IIB flow is similar except the water surface not only dips
below Y2c but also Y4c downstream from the constriction.

• Both types of flow are subject to the same analysis since the
criterion here is that the flow passes through critical depth.
• A backwater expression applicable to both types-IIA and IIB
flow has been developed by equating the total energy surface
between section-1 and the point at which the water surface
passes through critical stage in the constriction.

148
 Cont’d…

• Energy loss caused by constriction (hc) can be expressed as

hc = hT – SoL1-c = cbα2(V22c)/(2g)

149
 Cont’d…
• Solving for backwater:

• Where:
– h1*= total bridge backwater (m)
– Yn = normal flow depth (m) (model)
– Y = normal flow depth or [An2/b] (m) (prototype)
– Y2c = critical depth in constriction or [(Q2/(b2g))1/3] (m)
– V2c = critical velocity in constriction or [Q/(Y2c*b)] (m/s)
– V1 = velocity at section 1 or [Q/A1] (m/s)
– α1, α2 = velocity head correction coefficients at section-1
and in the constriction respectively
– Cb = backwater coefficient for type-II flow (constriction
150
loss only) should the backwater coefficient be desired
 Cont’d…

( )
∗ 2
h1 + 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑦 2 𝑐
𝛼1 𝑉1
𝐶𝑏= + − 1 … … … ¿ 10
2
𝛼2 𝑉 2 𝑐 /2 𝑔 𝛼2 𝑉 2𝑐

151
 Cont’d…
Type-III Flow

• In the type-III flow, figure above the normal water surface is

everywhere below critical depth and flow throughout is
supercritical.
• This is an unusual case requiring a steep gradient but such
conditions do exist, particularly in mountainous regions.
• Theoretically backwater should not occur for this type, since
the flow throughout is supercritical. 152
 Computation of backwater
• An expression for backwater has been formulated by applying
the principle of conservation of energy between the point of
maximum backwater in upstream (section-1) and a point
downstream from the bridge at which normal stage has been re-
established (section-4).
• The backwater at upstream from a bridge constricting the flow
is:

• To compute backwater, it is necessary to obtain the approximate

value of h1* by using the first part of the expression (eqn. #11).

153
 Cont’d…

• The value of A1 is the second part of expression (eqn. #11),

which depends on h1*, can then be determined and the second

term of the expression evaluated:

• Backwater coefficient (K* and Kb)

• Kb - is the backwater coefficient for a bridge in which only the
bridge opening ratio, M, is considered.
• This is known as a base coefficient as shown in the Figure
below from base curves.

154
 Cont’d…

Figure Backwater coefficient base curves (subcritical flow)

• Top curve:- 90o wing-wall abutments, b < 60m (high energy loss)
• Middle curve:- 30o wing-wall abutments with b < 60m
• Lower curve:- all 45o and 60o wing-wall abutments (low energy
loss).
155
 Cont’d…

• The value of the overall backwater coefficient, K*, is similarly

dependent on the value of M but also affected by:
a) Number, size, shape and orientation of piers in the
constriction
b) Eccentricity or asymmetric position of bridge with respect to
the valley cross section
I. Skew (bridge crosses stream at other than 90o angle).
• K* consists of a base curves coefficient, Kb, to which is added
incremental coefficients to account for the effect of piers,
eccentricity and skew.
156
 Cont’d…

Effect of Piers (Normal Crossings), ∆Kp

• Backwater caused by introduction of piers in a bridge
constriction has been treated as an incremental backwater
coefficient (∆Kp), which is added to the base curve coefficient Kb
when piers are present in the waterway.
• ∆Kp is depends on:
• The ratio that the area of the piers bears to the gross area of
the bridge opening (J = Ap/An2)
• The type of piers
• The value of the bridge opening ratio, M, and
• The angularity of the piers with the direction of flood flow.
157
 Cont’d…

• Ap, An2 both based on the normal water surface.

i.e. An2 = b*Yn2,

• Ap = total projected area of piers normal to flow, hn2 = height

pier exposed to flow, bp = width of pier normal to flow.

158
 Cont’d…

• For a normal crossing with piers, the total backwater coefficient

becomes: 159
 Effects of piers (skewed crossings)

• In the case of skewed crossings, the effect of piers is treated as

explained for normal crossings except for the computation of J, An2
and M.

• The pier area for a skewed crossing, Ap, is the sum of the individual
pier areas normal to the general direction of flow.

• The area of the constriction, An2, for skewed crossings is based on

the projected length of bridge, bscosɸ.

• An2 is a gross value and includes the area occupied by piers.

• The computation of M for skewed crossings is also based on the

projected length of bridge. 160
 Cont’d…

• Figure illustration of a skewed bridge crossing

161
 Effect of eccentricity (∆Ke)
• For an extremely eccentric crossing with wing-wall or spill-
through abutments and piers will be,
K* = Kb + ∆Kp + ∆Ke

162
 Effects of skew (∆Ks)

• The opening width is projected upstream on to section-1, which

is perpendicular to the general direction of flow.
• Blockage caused by any piers is calculated using the projected
area on a plane perpendicular to the flow.
• Note that the incremental backwater coefficient, ∆Ks, can be
negative or positive.
• The negative values result from the method of computation and
do not necessarily indicate that the backwater will be reduced
(increasing hydraulic efficiency) by employing a skewed
crossing.
• These incremental values are to be added algebraically to K b.
163
 Cont’d…

Figure Incremental backwater coefficient for skew 164

 Cont’d…
• K* = Kb + ∆Kp + ∆Ke + ∆Ks
• It is possible to determine from M and the angle of skew (ø), the
width of skewed opening (bs) needed to give the same backwater
as a normal opening of width b.

• Figure: skewed span (bs) required to give the same backwater 165
as
 Bridge backwater computation procedure
• The following steps are used to determine the backwater produced by a
bridge constriction:
1. Determine the magnitude and frequency of the discharge for which the
bridge is to be designed.
2. Determine the stage of the stream at the bridge site for the design discharge.
3. Plot a representative cross section of stream for design discharge at section-
1.
4. Subdivide the cross section plotted in step-3 according to marked changes
in depth of flow and changes in roughness. Assign values of Manning
roughness coefficient, n, to each sub-section (Table).
5. Compute conveyance and then discharge in each subsection
6. Using cumulative conveyance and discharge at section-1, compute slope of
stream, So.
7. Determine value of kinetic energy coefficient, α1
8. Plot natural cross section under proposed bridge based on normal water
surface for design discharge and compute gross water area (including area
166
occupied by piers).
 Cont’d…
9. Compute bridge opening ratio, M
10. Obtain value of Kb* from base curve for symmetrical normal
crossings.
11. If piers are involved, compute value of J and obtain incremental
coefficient, ∆Kp, from curve.
12. If eccentricity is severe, compute value of e and obtain incremental
coefficient, ∆Ke, from curve.
13. If a skewed crossing is involved, observe proper procedure in previous
steps, then obtain incremental coefficient, ∆Ks, from curve.
14. Determine total backwater coefficient, K*, by adding incremental
coefficients to base curve coefficient, Kb.
15. Estimate α2 from curve, then make allowable for any unusual
topographic, vegetative or approach condition which may lead to
further asymmetrical velocity distribution in the bridge constriction.
16. Compute backwater h* 167
 Cont’d…
Example 3.2
A bridge is being designed to cross the channel described in
example 3.1. The crossing will have a skew (ø) of 30o with
vertical wing wall abutments parallel to the flow, as shown in
figure below. As in the previous example, assume that the design
flood is 98.030m3/s, YN = 4m and the height of the opening is 5m
above bed level. Two alternate designs are being considered:
• (a) a single span with a skewed width of 11.547m, which
leaves the main channel free of obstruction, and
• (b) a two -span structure with a skewed width of 11.547m
between the abutments including a round-nosed pier with a
skewed width of 1.000m in the Centre of the main channel.
Calculate the afflux h1*.

168
Cont’d…

169
 Cont’d…
• Assignment-(III)
• The channel crossing shown in figure below is with the following
information: Cross section of river at bridge site showing areas,
wetted perimeters and values of Manning n; normal water surface
for design = Elv. 9m at bridge; average slope of river in vicinity
of bridge So =0.0005 m/m; cross section under bridge showing
area below normal water surface and width of roadway = 12m.
The stream is essentially straight, the cross section is relatively
constant in the vicinity of the bridge and the crossing is normal to
the general direction of flow.

170
 Cont’d…

• Find:
a) Conveyance at upstream cross section (K)
b) Discharge of stream at Elv. 9m
c) Velocity head correction coefficient, α 1
d) Bridge opening ratio, M
e) Backwater produced by the bridge 171
 B) High flow case (waterway opening is submerged)
• Orifice flow (sluice gate pressure flow)

172
 Cont’d…

• Where:
• Cd-orf = is the coefficient of discharge, it ranges from
0.35 – 0.5;
• Ao = is the net area of the bridge opening, Ao = Z*bnet
• Z = is the bridge low chord height
• bnet = clear span width of bridge opening.
173
 Pressurized Flow

• Typical values for the discharge coefficient Cd range from 0.7 to

0.9.
• A value of 0.8 is used for most bridges.
174
Weir flow

175
 Bridge scour
• Scour is the removal of material from the bed and banks of streams
as a result of the erosive action of flowing water.
• Common cause of bridge failure is from floods eroding bed
materials around bridge foundations. Such failure is primarily due
to:
– Inadequate knowledge about scour phenomenon when the
bridge was constructed
– Inadequate data and knowledge about design flood
• Scour rate depends mainly on:
– Flow power, material resistance, sediment in/out balance
(equilibrium scour).
176
 Cont’d…
(a) Pier piles and pile cap exposed (b) Pier and abutment riprap moved d/s

(c) D/s scour hole and bank erosion (d) D/s scour hole arising from
submergence (pressure flow) 177
 Cont’d…

e. Slumped material at the toe arising from failure of the riprap or bank.
f. Erosion (mass wasting) and failure of the highway of the abutment.
• Scour is a very serious problem, floods that result in scour are the
principal cause of bridge failure.
178
Cont’d…

179
 Types of scour
• Based on bridge crossings scour can be classified as clear water
scour and live bed scour.
• If mean velocity (V) of the flow at u/s is less than the scour critical
velocity (Vs) then the bed material u/s of the bridge is at rest:
– this is called the clear water condition because the approach
flow is clear & does not contain sediment.
• In this case any bed material that is removed from a local scour
hole is not replaced by sediment being transported by the approach
flow.
• Live-bed scour occurs where V > Vs and the bed material upstream
of the crossing is moving.
• This means that the approach flow continuously transports
180
sediment into a local scour hole.
 Cont’d…
• Equilibrium scour depth is achieved when material is transported
into the scour hole & at the same rate at which it is transported out.
• To determine whether the flow condition is clear-water or live-bed,
Neill (1968) equation given below, applied to the unobstructed flow.
If the average velocity (V = Q/A m/s) in the scour will be live bed.

• Where: Ss=2.65 (specific gravity of the sediment), g=9.81 m/s 2; D50

is the median grain size of the bed material (m). and Y is the
average depth (m) in the upstream channel. So that the equation
becomes:
Vs = 6.36 Y1/6D501/3
• The clear water and live bed conditions are significant because to
some degree the growth of the scour hole will depend upon whether
or not the bed material is already in motion.
181
 Cont’d…

• Figure diagrammatic illustration of the increase in local scour depth (dsL) with
time for clear water and live bed conditions.
• The oscillations for the live bed condition (dotted) are due to transient bed
features such as ripples and dune.
• The final clear water scour depth exceeds the equivalent equilibrium live bed
depth by about 10%. At any particular location both clear water and live bed
scour may be experienced.
• During a single flood the mean velocity will increase and decrease as the
discharge rises and falls, so it is possible to have clear water conditions
initially, then a live bed, then finally clear water again (Fig. below). The 182
 Cont’d…

• Figure above shows the variation of local scour depth (d SL) with approach

velocity.

• The main components of scour include:- long term or natural scour

(degradation or aggradations), contraction scour (bridge opening) and

local scour (piers and abutments)

• Degradation or Aggradations:- can only occur with a live bed (V > V s),
183
 Cont’d…

• Degradation can be expressed qualitatively by Lane’s balance

analogy (Lane, 1955; Bryan et al. 1995):

• Where: Q is the water discharge, So is the channel bed slope, Qs is

the bed material discharge, and D50 is the median grain size of the
bed material.
184
 Cont’d…
• A change to one variable on either side of the equation will affect
the stability of the channel, and can lead to degradation or
aggradation.
• Contraction Scour:- occurs over a whole cross section as a result of
the increased velocities arising from a narrowing of the channel by
a constriction.

185
 Cont’d…
• The approach flow depth h1 and average approach flow velocity
V1 result in the sediment transport rate qs1.
• The total transport rate to the contraction is W1qs1, in which W1 is
the width of the approach.
• If the water flow rate Q1 = W1q1 in the upstream channel is equal
to the flow rate at the contracted section then by continuity:

• Where: q1 = h1V1, q2 = h2V2

• The sediment transport rate at the contracted section after
equilibrium is established must be:

186
 Cont’d…
• The depth of scour ∆z that is due to the contraction is then,
∆z = h2 – h1.
• Local scour (Piers, abutments):- arises from the increased
velocities and associated vortices as water accelerates around the
corners of abutments, piers and spur dykes.
• Local pier scour:- is when the velocity of upstream of the pier
accelerate around the pier and flow is directed downward along the
front face of pier.
• A “horseshoe” vortex forms where the downward flow reaches the
bed and the size of the vortex increases as the scour hole enlarges.
• Sediment deposition occurs in the wake area downstream of the
pier. 187
Cont’d…

188
 Cont’d…

• Figure the flow pattern and scour hole at a cylindrical pier. The
down flow, horseshoe vortex and wake vortex are the principal
cause of local bed erosion
189
 Cont’d…
• There are many factors that influence the magnitude of pier scour:
• Hydraulic factors: (velocity (V), depth (y) and angle of attack (θ) of
the flow approaching the pier, the water’s density and viscosity,
Froude number);
• Pier factors: (width, length, geometry); Scour depth increases with
increasing pier width (bp).
• Square concerns shape increasing scour depths by 10 – 30% than
round nosed piers.
• Sediment factors: (grain size distribution, size (D50), density, cohesive
properties).
• Bed configuration: those with D < 0.7mm can have various bed
configurations: ripples, dunes, plane bed or antidunes…etc.
• For both clear water and live bed conditions Richardson et al. (1993)
recommended equation for the estimation of equilibrium pier scour
depth (dsp) 190
 Cont’d…

• Where: Y2 is the flow depth (m) at the bridge section directly upstream
of the pier (m), K1P is an adjustment factor for pier nose shape obtained
from Table below for ø < 5o, K2P is an adjustment factor for the angle
of attack (ø > 5o) obtained from curve, K3P is an adjustment factor for
bed configuration obtained from Table, b p is the pier width (m), V2 is
the mean velocity of flow (m/s) at the bridge directly upstream of the
pier and F2 is the Froude number = V2/(gy2)1/2.
• Note that if ø > 5o the factor K2P dominates, so K1P can be taken as 1.0.
191
Cont’d…

192
Cont’d…

193
Cont’d…

194
 Cont’d…

a) Approximate pier scour depth, dSP, for various pier shapes aligned to the
approach flow, where bp is the pier width perpendicular to the flow. If the
depth of flow exceeds 5bp then dSP should be increased by 50%.
b) If the approach flow is at an angle to the pier then multiply dSP from part195
(a)
 Cont’d…

• Local scour depth at abutments (dSA):- abutments, as well as spur

dykes, can have different shapes and they can be set at various
angles to the flow. The scour mechanism at a bridge abutment is
similar to that at a pier.

196
 Cont’d…

• Some of the factors that influence abutment scour include the

topography of the site (amount of flow intercepted by the bridge
abutments), the abutment shape, and the hydraulic characteristics
of sediments.
197
 Cont’d…

• For both clear water and live bed conditions Richardson et al.
(1993) recommended for the calculation of abutment scour depths,
dSA.

198
 Cont’d…
• Where: YM1 is the mean depth of flow (m) on the u/s floodplain,
K1A is the coefficient for abutment shape from Table, K2A =
(ɸ/90)0.13 is the coefficient for the angle of the embankment
abutment relative to the approach flow, LA is the length (m) of the
embankment abutment projected normal to the flow and FM1 is the
Froude number of the approach flow upstream of the abutment.
• In this case FM1 = VM1/(gYM1)1/2, where: VM1 is the mean velocity
(m/s) on the floodplain.

199
 Cont’d…
• Note that with respect to the angle of the approach flow, ɸ < 90o if
the embankment abutment points downstream and ɸ > 90o if it
points upstream.

• Total scour depth, ds

• Degradation, contraction and local scour are additive, but only
where the scour holes overlap.
• For instance, contraction scour may have to be added to pier or
abutment scour to get the total scour depth. However, pier scour and
abutment scour would not be added unless the two scour holes
200
 Cont’d…

Example 3.3
• Just upstream of a 0.9m wide round nosed pier the depth of flow is
1.3m with a velocity of 1.6m/s. The pier is skewed to the approach
flow with ø = 15o. The length of the waterway in the direction of
flow (L) is 14.4m. Assume that the channel bed is plane. Calculate
the local pier scour depth.
Example 3.4
• The longitudinal Centre line of an embankment leading to a bridge
abutment is skewed at an angle of 30o compared with a
perpendicular crossing. The length of the embankment/abutment is
33m measured along the Centre line. The abutments are of the
vertical wall type. It is estimated that the mean depth on the
upstream floodplain is 1.2m with a mean velocity of 0.7m/s. 201
Thanks!