Chapter 3

Hardware
Syllabus
Syllabus
Computer System
A general Computer system is a machine with capability of;
1. Data as Input/Output
• Input: “Taking some input from outside world using some input device like Keyboard/Mouse, scanner,
microphone, game controller, joystick”
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• Output: “Displaying/presenting data into human understandable format on some output devices like display
Screens, Hardcopies obtained from printers/plotters, Speaker, Data transmission on NW etc.”

2. Storing Data:
• Storage Devices: “A part of the computer system which is used to store the information and instructions to be
processed. Like Cache, registers, primary Memory, Secondary Memory, buffers”
• Primary Storage: Stores critical Program instructions and data (RAM)
• Secondary Storage: Stores Non-critical Program instructions and data accessed rarely. (HD)
• Removable secondary storage usage??? *Backup / data transfer
3. Processing Data
Primary/main/R-W Storage
• RAM: “RAM is a type of very fast memory that is used
to temporarily hold data about currently running programs.” It is
volatile memory.
• Randomness??
 Static RAM vs Dynamic RAM
SRAM (static RAM) is a type of random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its memory as
long as power is being supplied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be continuously
refreshed

• DRAM • SRAM
• Requires continuous recharge/refresh to • Retains data as long as power is
retain data bits supplied( Volatile nature)
• More power needed • Less power consumption
• Expensive
• Inexpensive
• Less Space
• More Space
• Better performance (Fast access)
• Slower than SRAM
• Smaller size
• Bigger than SRAM
• Used in cache
• Used in main memory
*Cache memory is small amount of RAM located on the CPU itself. It
• Made of transistors using capacitors stores commonly used data that is being constantly used by the operating
system, allowing for even faster access than the RAM.

• Made of transistors using flip-flops

ROM (Read Only Memory
• Read only memory is mainly used in a PC to store the tiny mini
operating system called the BIOS. The BIOS data is flashed to the
ROM chip when the motherboard is made and does not change for it’s
entire lifetime (hence the term Read Only). If you want to update the
BIOS, you need to flash the ROM chip.

• The BIOS is responsible for doing a system hardware check before

the system starts to make sure all the connected devices are
functioning. Once it has completed the check it boots up the
operating system.
RAM vs ROM
Different types of ROM
ROM PROM EPROM EEPROM
Read Only Memory Programmable Read only Erasable Programmable Electrically Erasable
Memory Read only Memory Programmable Read only
Memory

Hard-wired non-volatile Can be programmed once Can be programmed Can be programmed

memory for permanently multiple times by UV light multiple times
storing data at the time of
manufacturing.
Very expensive Less expensive than ROM Cheaper than ROM Lowest in cost
Chip can only be used for CHIP can be reused Requires specialist Can be erased /reflashed
one specific purpose As it can be programmed hardware to erase and easily
once reprogram
If any update is required Bug/Update after Not secure than others
then hardware needs to programming? Now Chip
be replaced is discarded
Used in mature systems Firmware for mature Used in microcontrollers Used in Embedded
devices and firmware devices, USB, BIOS Chips
Embedded Systems
“Microprocessors (aka Micro-controllers) are tiny computers embedded
in household items, such as televisions, washing machines, microwaves
smart home lock. Through the use of input and output connections they
can monitor and control the devices in real time.”
“Embedded system is a combination of computer hardware
and software designed for a specific function.”

• Wired / wireless internet connectivity

• They have a number of input/output ports.
Benefits Limitations
Difficult to program functions since there is either no
Reliable since there are no moving parts
interface
Require less power Expensive expert help needed for repair
Cheap to mass-produce
Buffers
• A temporary storage area in the main memory (RAM) that
stores data transferring between two or more devices or
between an application and a device.

• Example: word processors which employ a buffer to trace all changes made to files and
on saving the file the word processor updates the disk file contents by copying the
contents of the buffer memory.
• Buffer is high speed data read/write
Operations of Hardware Devices
Printer:
“A hardware component to generate the hard /printable form of a
digital document/picture”
Laser Printer Inkjet Printer

Uses Toner/ Powdered Ink Uses Liquid Ink

All printing done at once Printing is done line by line

Laser beam is used to transfer color particles from Ink head is used to transfer color droplets on page
color roller to page

Faster Process Slower Process

Expensive Cheaper than Laser printer

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Operations of Hardware Devices
3D printer
“Commonly used in CAD process where usable solid objects are made layer by layer using a
powdered resin, plastic, or ceramic”
Working:
1: Design the object in CAD(computer Aided Design) software (Modelling)
2: Convert the design to an understandable format for printer (Slicing)
3: Printer is set up to start building the object.
Printer head can move L-R and B-F
4: Layer by Layer construction is started (3d Printing)
5: When object is ready, give it some finishing touches by removing any extra plastic/powder
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Operations of Hardware Devices
Microphone
“An input device to capture sound waves and then transfer them to a computer
system”
Working:
1. Sound waves around the microphone hit the diaphragm.
2. Diaphragm vibrations causes the copper coil wrapped around a
permanent magnet to move back/forth.
3. Coil movement causes an magnetic field which in turn produces
current.
4. This electric signal is analogue, Now ADC convert this analogue
signal to digital signal which can be then fed into computer
Operations of Hardware Devices
Speakers
“Speaker is an output device, used to produce audio output which can
be heard by a person”
“Electromagnetic waves are converted into sound waves using
speakers”

Two magnets are used in speakers:

1: Electromagnet(Copper wire) 2: Permanent Magnet (Iron)

2: When current is applied to the electromagnet, it is attracted are push off the
permanent magnet

3:This movement of coil causes diaphragm to vibrate, which causes vibrations in air and
Operations of Hardware Devices
• Magnetic hard disk
• Hard disk has platters whose surfaces are covered with a
magnetizable material.
• Platters are mounted on central spindle and rotated at high-speed
• Surface of platters divided into concentric tracks & sectors, where
data is encoded as magnetic patterns
• Each surface is accessed by read/write heads
• When writing, current variation in head causes magnetic field
variation on disk
• When reading, magnetic field variation from disk produces current
variation in read head
Operations of Hardware Devices
• solid state (flash) memory
• Most use NAND-based flash memory
• Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2 transistors at
each intersection
• Two transistors:
• Floating Gate: stores electros and the presence or absence of
charge (electrons) represents either 1 or 0
• Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) flow for read/write
Operations of Hardware Devices
• Optical disc reader/writer
• Disc surface has reflective metal layer and is spun
• Tracking mechanism moves laser assembly
• Lens focuses laser onto disc
• Laser beam shone onto disc to read/write
• Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline states on the
metallic layer
• When reading, the reflected light from the different states on the track
are encoded as bit patterns
• When writing, laser changes surface to crystalline and amorphous
states along the track, which correspond to 1s or 0s.
Operations of Hardware Devices
• Touchscreen
Touch Screens are used for the interaction of user with the system as well as they act as display
devices.
• These are alternative of (mouse,
Resistive capacitive
keyboard and display unit)
Many layers of glass, that
• Very common use in smart phones, Consists of two charged plates
behaves like capacitor
tablet and laptops Pressure causes plates to touch, When touched, charge
• Touch screens are input/output devices. completing circuit transferred from finger
Two types of Touchscreen are; Point of contact registered with Point of touch is
1: Resistive 2:Capacitive coordinates used to calculate determined by
Working: layers of charged glass sheets position microprocessor
are overlayed on one another, on touching
the sheet circuit is completed and Inexpensive Medium cost
microprocessor calculates the coordinate Can be touched with Multi touch capability/with
point where the screen was touched finger/stylus/gloves/objects finger/stylus
Good screen visibility even
Poor screen visibility
in light
Virtual reality headset
Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (LCD) display, circuit board
with sensors, cover and foam padding
The display provides a simulation of a 3D environment,
generated by a 3D graphics package
The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by moving their
head or using controllers
Monitoring and Control Systems
• Monitoring System
• Monitors some state external to computer system
• No changes made to environment by the system and hence no
feedback
• Control System
• Regulates the behaviour of other devices or systems.
• Event-driven system: the controller alters the state of the system in
response to some event.
• Time-driven system: the controller takes action at a specific point in
time
Hardware used;
• Sensor: measures an (analogue) property and transmits it to a processing unit,
generally as an electrical or optical signal.
• Actuators: switch on/off heavy appliances (e.g. heater to heat/fan to cool)
• ADC: Converts analogue signals to digital signals
• Transmission cable: Transfer signals
Feedback Systems

• Output from system affects the input of sensors.

• Ensures system operates within the given criteria
• By enabling the system output to affect subsequent system inputs,
it may cause a change in the actions taken by the system
• Thus enables the system to automatically adjust conditions in a
continuous process
 Logic Gates and Logic Circuits
• Logic Gates: “1 or more inputs and produces a single logical output”
It is a physical device implementing a *Boolean function.
*A logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces
a single binary output.
• AND , OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, XOR

A B Not(A) OR AND NOR NAND XOR

INPUT VARIABLES --^---------------^------------^--------LOGIC GATES-----^-----------^----
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Logic Circuit: combination of different gates
accepting a Boolean input and resulting some output

Truth Table:A truth table has one column for each input
variable (for example, P and Q), and one final column showing all of
the possible results of the logical operation

LogicExpression: A logical expression is a statement that can be T/F

Example
• Problem Statement: Ahmed will go to school if it is a sunny day or
ahmad is going by bus.
Output: O=Ahmed will go to school
Preposition: A=It is Sunny (yes/No)
Preposition: B=Ahmed is going by Bus (Yes/No)

TruthTable: O=A.B +A.B’ + A’.B

A B O O=A(B+B’)+A’.B
O=A+A’.B
Sunny 1 By Bus 1 Yes 1
0=A+B
Sunny 1 Not By Bus 0 Yes 1
Not Sunny 0 By Bus 1 Yes 1
Not Sunny 0 Not By bus 0 No 0
• Construct a logic circuit From:
• a problem statement
• a logic expression
• a truth table
• Construct a Truth Table From:
• a problem statement
• a logic expression
• a Logic Circuit
• Construct a logic expression From:
• a problem statement
• a logic circuit
• a truth table
 Boolean-Algebra
Double Complement: • Commutative Law
• A.B = B.A
(A’)’= A
• A+B=B+A
Identity Law • Associative
1.A= A
• (A.B).C= A.(B.C)(A.B)
0+A=A
• (A + B) + C= A + (B + C)
Null Law • Distributive Law
0.A=0 • A + B.C = (A + B).(A + C)
1 + A=1 • A.( B + C ) = A.B + A.C
Idempotent Law • Adsorption
A.A = A • A.( A + B ) = A
A + A =A • A + A.B =A
Inverse Law • De Morgan’s Law
A.A’= 0 • (A+B)’=A’.B’
A + A’ = 1 • (A+B)’=A’.B’