MR3491 SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT II - MOTION, PROXIMITY

AND RANGING SENSORS

Prepared by
A.R.SIVAN
ESH
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Sri Ranganathar Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Coimbatore
 SYLLABU
S
Motion Sensors - Potentiometers, Resolver,
Encoders Optical, Magnetic,
Capacitive,LVDT - RVDT - Synchro - Inductive,
Accelerometer - GPS, Bluetooth, Range Sensors -
Microsyn,
RF beacons, Ultrasonic Ranging, Reflective
beacons, Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR).
 Sensor

o A sensor is which receives and

a
device responds to a
signal.
o A ensor (also called detector) is a
converter t at
measures a physical quantity and converts
· into a signal which can be read by
an observer or by an (today mostly
electronic)
instrument.
 Specifications of Sensor

• Accuracy: error between the result of

a measurement and the true value being
measured.
• Resolution: the smallest increment of measure that a
do/Ice can make.
• Se sitlvity: the ratio between the change in
the o p u t signal to a small change in
inputs physical
· n a .l

epeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to

o
 Typ e s o f
sensors

• There are many versions of eac h type which may

use a different sensing principle or may be
designed to op erate within different ranges.

e sensors are used to measure and/or detect a

uge variety of conditions including: temperature,
pressure, level, hum id ity, speed, motion, dista nc e,
light or the presence/absence of an object and
many other types.
 Motion se
nsors
• The term 'Motion sensors' can be used to refer to any
kind of sensing system which is used to detect
motion; motion of any object or motion of human
beings.

tion sensor is also called as motion detector.

• Motion sensors are commonly used in security systems

as triggers for automatic lights or remote alarms and
similar applications.
 Types o f M o tion
sensors
• The way which a motion sensor
typically
in depends on the type of sensor being
works
used. which often depends on the device that
uses the sensor.

There are two basic types of motion sensors:

• Active Sensors
• Passive Sensors
 Active sensors
• Active sensors emit a signal. typically an burst
of (light, microwaves or sound) waves which is
reflected by the surroundings.

• he reflected signa l is received by the sensor

and takes necessary action.

• When something moves within the area of an

active motion sensor, the change in signal
that is reflected to the sensor activates the
system.
 Contd...
• The active sensor is one of the most common and
reliable sensors used in a security system.
• For exa mple, when an automatic faucet senses
hands underneath it, a device is signaled to run
water in the sink.
 Passive sensor
• Passive sensors are type of motion
sensor
a that do not emit a signal. but
instead detect infrared radiation around
the sensor.
• As this sensor detects temperature
differences. it is well suited to detecting
the motion of people by their body
temperature.
 )> When a
person or
animal moves
through he area, heat
from the ovement
is
hich i s c onnecdetected
te
ydthe sen sor , which then \
ctivates the system 0\
to
Ue as a human
detection sensor to omatically
n lights on when a person is present in a room
to turn them off when nobody is there.
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 TYPICAL APPLIC
ATIONS

Motion sensing is used in number

of applications

• Automated lighting system

• Security systems
Smart Floodlights
Burglar Alarm
• Radar Guns
 Advantages of Motion
sensor
• Saves time

• Security

• ,E sy to install

Saves energy

• Powerful
transmission
 Motion detec
otion tion
detection is the process of detecting a
change in position of an object relative to its
surroundings or the change in
the surroundings relative to an
object.

Motio can be detected by:

• I rared (Passive and active sensors)
• ptics (video and camera systems)
Radio Frequency Energy (radar, microwave motion
detection)
Sound (microphones and acoustic sensors)
 TYPES OF MOTION SENS
ING

• Local Motion Sensing

• ltrasonic Motion Sensing

• Microwave Motion Sensing

 Local motion
sensing
• Infrared light is a spectrum of non-visible - for
humans at least - light that is emitted by
objects when they produce heat.

• (nfrared motion sensor systems are one of the

cheapest and most reliable systems available.

• An infrared motion detector uses infrared

sensing to detect motion in a given area.
 Contd...
• The use of infrared technology usually allows such a
detector to only pick up on heat.

• Infrared sensors are by high

characterized sen sitivity , low cost and
are widely used.
• A infrared motion detector can also be set to only
ick up on certain levels of heat. making it possible
o ignore small animals.

This type of detector is often used as part of a

arger security system.
 Ultraso nic motion se ns in
g
rasonic motion detectors use sound waves to
detect motion. If movement is detected, the sound
wave pattern is disrupted and alarm is signaled.

• It senses motion
by analyzing sound
waves

hese frequencies are generally inaudible to umans

and most animals and do not pass through ost
objec:ts, . • "''" ·"
Contd...

• Active motion sensors genera te sound

waves in the ultrasonic frequency range.
typically around 30 to 50 kilohertz (kHz).

• When no objects ore moving in the area.

the pattern of sound and the time it tokes to
bounce back remain the some.
• If something moves. the detector senses
that the level or phase of the returning
sound waves hos shitted slightly.
 Microwave motion sensing

icrowave motion sensor send out

systems microwaves
that bounce off an object and back to the sensor.

• The sensor then

reads the (equency
of the re urning
waves.

If an object is moving, the sensor receives different

i c r o w o v .. ,th9n " ) he ones it sent out, signifying
ovement and setting off the alarm.
• These types or motion sensor systems cover a
larger area than infrared sensors. they ore
capable of penetrating walls.

• They ore more reliable over longer distances.

• Their radiation is unhealthy for living organisms.

• Despite this. they ore the least popular motion

sensor system on the market because of their
their cost.
 Dual sense te c hno lo
gy
• Dual technology systems use a combination of
infrared and microwave motion sensor system s to
provide the most complete coverage available.

• Usipg both forms of tech nolog y allows dual motion s

hsor systems to reduce the occurrence of false larms
by combining the microwave technology's coverage
range and the infrared technology's use of heat
sensing.

The dual technology system is

rapidly gaining popularity among
homeowners and businesses a like.
 CELL PHONES WITH MOTION
S.EN
• Th e mo t senso r used 1n
ion
mobile phones is
accelerometer which is a c o mp
lex mo tion sensor.
tronslojes
Itthe scr motion Into action on

en.
• Ace lerometers ore used in tablet
o putersand digital cameras so h
t images on scre ens ore a lwa ys i
ployed upright.
 Motion sensing in Games

- Motion sensing
technology is on emerging
technology in Gaming.

• Ou focus lechnology will be Microsoft's Xbox360 Kinect p 'pherol.

which is the first demonstrator of touch free motion s nsing.

he primary innovation of Kinect (and lhe most secretive) is th e

device that enables advanced posture. gesture. facial. and
voice recognition.
 Kine c t
inect is composed of three major hardware compon

Webcam

An Infrared projector and sensor

Microphone
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 Challenges f a c e d

• Limited Camera And Sensor Capability

• Better Audio Sensing Capability

• imited Body Recognition

POTENTIOMETER SENSOR
 POTENTIOMETER SENSOR

A POTENT IOMETER CONS IST OF A RESISTANCE ELEMENT WITH A SLIDING

CONTACT WHICH CAN BE MOVED ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE ELEMENT.
SUCH ELEMENT CAN BE USED FOR LINEAR OR ROTARY DISPLACEMENTS ,

I THE DISPLACEMENT BEING CONVERTED INTO A POTENTIALDIFFERENCE

Displacement Shall
(

Wirt

+
£in
(a) Tnmsla1ory (linear)
\ po1en1lome1er
x; is the wiper displacement from its rest (zero) position
x1 is the 101al.len& Lh ot:.the.>1potentiometcr in m
-
THE ROTARY POTENTIOMETER CONSIST OF CIRCLE WIRE WOUND TRRACK OR A FLIM
OF CONDUCTIVITY PLASTIC WHICH IS ROTATABLESLIDING CONTACT CAN BE
ROTATED

I
E..,

-
+ Wiper + I
E., x, I f.
I x1
i
E..,
-
.

-
(a) Transl11ory (b) Rouulonal
pou,nrlometer po1endonte1er

Ros,sian<:e
o mont

,..
...
--0

.,
 I t works on the principle of conversion of
mechanical displacement into an electrical
signal.
• The nsor has a resistive element and a slid'lng
contact (wiper). The slider moves along t is
conductive body, acting as a movable
lectric contact.
 • The output voltage is
propo rtional to the
displacement
of the slider over
Vo
the wire

--
• Then the out put
parameter
Ra
8
displacement is
calibrated against the
output voltage VA.
V ,. = J R ,. (2.2.1)

But I= V8 I ( R , . + R a ) (2.2.2)

Tbeccfo<e VA= Vs R ,. I ( R , . + R a ) ( 2 .2. 3 )

Al; ,vekn.o,v tha t R :a p L / A. ,vhcrc p is electrical resisrivity. L is length of rc$iS-to r

ruid A i.s n.ren. of cross sect-ion

V, . = V s LA I ( L A + L s ) (2.2.4)

APPLICATION
m achine-tool controls
Elevators
automobile thrott le
controls
control of injection molding machines
woodworking machinery
Printing
Sprayin
g
robotics
Resolver
 What is a
Resolver?
• A resolver is an electromagnetic transducer that can be used in a wide
variety of position and velocity feedback applications which includes light
duty/servo, light industrial or heavy duty applications. Resolvers, known as
motor resolvers, are commonly used in servo motor feedback app
lications due to their good performance in high temperature environments.
• Because the resolver is an analog device and the electrical outputs are
continuous through one complete mechanical revolution, the theoretical
resolutign of a single speed resolver is infinite. Because of its simple
transf fmer design and lack of any on board electronics, the resolver is a
muc more rugged device than most any other feedback device and is the
bes choice for those applicationswhere reliable performance is required in
th se high temperature, high shock and vibration, radiation and c
ntamination environments which makes the resolver the sensible design
temative for shaft angle encoding.
 Resolver
• Design
The resolver is a special type of rotary transformer that consists of a
cylindrical rotor and stator. Both the rotor and the stator are
manufactured with multi-slot laminations and two sets of windings. The
windings are normally designed and distributed in the slotted
lamination with either a constant pitch-variable turn or variable pitch­
variable turn pattern. In either case, the w inding distribution is in a
sinus 1dal pattern.
• Th windings for a single speed resolver create one complete Sine curve
a d Cosine curve in one mechanical revolution while the windings for a
ulti -speed resolver create multip le Sine and Cosine curves in one
mechanical revolution. While a single speed provides absolute feedback
and the multi -speed does not, the multi-speed does provide better
accuracy.
• The number of speeds available is limited by the size of the
resolver. The two sets of windings are positioned in the
laminations at 90 degrees to each other. These are called
the Sine and Cosine windings. One set of windings in the
rotor are normally shorted internally to improve the
accuracy.

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 How Does a Resolver
• Work?
A resolver outpu t s signal by energizing the input phase of the resolver w it h
an AC voltage (VAC) to induce voltage into each of the output windings.
The resolver amplitude modulates the VAC input in proportion to the Sine
and the Cosine of the angle of mechanical rotation. The resolver is
sometimes known as an Analog Trigonometric Function Generator or a
Control Transmitt er. The function of the resolver is to resolve a vector into
its comp,o ents (Sine and Cosine). Electrical Zero (EZ) is defined as th e
position of th rotor with respect to the stator at which the re is minimum
voltage am itude across the Sine winding and the maximum voltage ampli
tude a oss th e Cosine winding when the input winding is excited wit h the
rated
ltage.
The rotor position or angle is simply the Arc tan of the voltage output of
the Sine winding divided by the output of the Cosine winding. This ratio
metric format provides an inherent noise reduction feature for any injected
noise whose magnit ude is approximately equivalent on both windings and
also results in a large degreeof temperature compensation.
There are 7 functional operating parameters
which define the resolver operation. These are:

• Accuracy
• Input Excitation Voltage
• Input Excitation Frequency
• Input Current Maximum
• Transformation Ratio of Output Voltage to the Input
Voltage
• Phase shift of the Output Voltage from the Input
Voltage
• NullVoltage
Resolver Applications

• Servo m o to r feedback
• Speed and position feedback in steel and paper mills
• Oil and gas production
• Jet engine fuel systems
• Aircraft flight surface actuators
• Communication po sition systems
• Control systems in land based milit ary vehicles
Encoders
Encoders

• An encoder is a sensing device that provides feedback.

Encodersconvert motion to an electrical signal that can be
read by some type of control device in a motion control
system, such as a counter or PLC. The encoder sends a
feedback signal that can be used to determine position,
count, speed, or direction.
• An encoder detects the rotation of objects as a physical
change amount by the sensor element , and finally
transmits rotation/ angle information to the outside as an
electrical signal. An encoder is classified into four types:
mechanical, optical, magnetic, and electromagnetic
induction types.
 Optical Encoders
• Any transducer that generates a coded reading
of a measurement can be tenned anencoder.
• Shaft Encodersare digital transducers that
are used for measuring angular
displacements and velocities.
• Relative advantages of digital transducers
over their analog counterparts:
- High resolution (depending on the word size of the
encoder output and the nwnber of pulses per
revolution of the encoder)
- High accuracy (particularly due to noise immunity
of digital signals and superior construction)
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1
- Relative ease of adaptation in dig ital control
systems (because transducer output is digital) with
associated reduction in system cost and improvement
of system reliability

• Shaft Encoders can be classified into two

categories depending on the nature and n1ethod of
·nterpretation of the output:
- lncremental Encoders
- Absolute Encoders
• Incremental Encoders
- Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the
transducer disk rotates as a result of the motion that is
being 1neas ured.
 - By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a
clock signal, both angular displace1nent and angular
velocity can be determined.
- Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to
some reference point on the cLisk, as incLicated by a
reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location
on the disk. The index pulse count determines the J
umber of full revolutions.
• l5solute Encoders
- An absolute encode r has many pulse tracks on its
transducer disk.
- When tbe disk of an absolute encoder rotates, several
pulse trains - equal in number to the tracks on the cLisk
- are generated simultaneously.
- At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse signal
will have one of two signal levels (i.e., a binary state)
as deternuned by a level detector. This signal level
corresponds to a binary digit (0 or 1). Hence, the set of
pulse trains gives an encoded binary number at any
instant.
- The pulse windows on the tracks can be organized into
s,9me pattern (code) so that each of these binary
numbers corresponds to the angular position of the
encoder disk at the tune when the particular bit1ary
number is detected.
- Pulse voltage can be1nade co,npatible with some form
of digital logic (e.g., TTL)
- Direct digital readout of an angular position is
possible.
 - Absolute encoders are commonly used to
measure fractions of a revolution. However,
complete revolutions can be measured using
an additional track that generates an index
pulse, as in the case of an incremental
encoder.
• Signal Generation can be accomplished using any
o e of four techniques:
- Optical (photosensor) method
- Sliding contact (electrical conducting) method
- Magnetic saturation (reluctance) method
- Proxiinity senso r 1netbod
• Method of signal interpretation and processing
is the saine' for a1T'fi5ur types of signal
 JL
,
Encoder
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Tr.CK
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e
I

Phot · 11. Pho\OIRMittor.

0t Photodiode
tlightSen10r> (s
lits)

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Sche1natic Representation of an Optical Encoder

One Track and One Pick-Off Sensor Shown
 In Binary Code, bit
switching may not
take place
... ..
simulta neo usly.
,_ ,
Absolute
Schematic Diagram of an Encoders must be
Absolute Encoder Disk powered and
8 monitored only
; 1,1 when a reading is
(a) taken. Also, if a
• ,
Pattern
) Gray code read ing is missed,
.
inary code it w i11 not affect
1ities in bit switching can be tbe nex t reading.
12
av ided by using gray code.
H ver, • II

additiona l logic is needed to

ert the gray-coded
number to a
responding binary number.
•
"'
 n
•
,7

Sliding
Sign_al
OutpuV t CL.
Con"1Ct
8ru'11

'
Commu111or I

h
Brush I
_,.Code O,sl<
I
I
( Elcc lrically Ins ulating
I Material)
I
I
Conducttng
I I
1 <>11 I
AtHt

Schematic Representation of a S l i d i n Contact Encoder

 Magne11C:
Spots.

s..,,.,,
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1' 39---
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"u t

Tnrisformer I
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P1c:k,Off
Elctment

t l / I

Output
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Schematic Representation of a Magnetic Encoder

• Elements of the Optical Encoder
- The optical encoder uses an opaque disk (code disk)
that has one or more circular tracks, with some
arrangement of identical transparent windows (slits)
in eac h track.
- A parallel beam of light (e.g., from a set of light­
e1nitting diodes) is projected to all tracks fro1n one
side of the disk.
- The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of
photosensors on the other side of the disk that
typically has one sensor for each track.
- The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode,
a phototransisto r, or a photovoltaic cell.
Since the light from the source is int err upted by the
opaque areas of the track, the output signal from the
probe is a series of voltage pulses. This signal can be
interpreted to obtain the angular position and angular
velocity of the disk.
- Note that an incremental e ncode r disk
requires only one primary track that has equally spaced
f

and identical iJ1dow (pick-off) areas. The window area

is equa l to the area of the inter-window gap. Usually, a
reference track that bas just one window is also present
in order to generate a pulse (known as the index
1n1t1ate pulse counting for angular
pulse) to
pos1t1on measurement and to detect comple te
revolutions.
- In contrast, absolute encoder disks bave several rows of
tracks, equal in Dun1ber to the bit size of the output data
word. Furthermore, the track windows are not equally
spaced but are an-anged in a specific pattern on each
track so as to obtain a binary code (or gray code) for the
output data from the transducer.
- It follows that absolute encoders need as least as n1aDy
s· nal pick-offsensors as there are tracks,
whereas cremental encoders need one pick-off sensor to
detect the magnitude of rotation and an additional
quarter-pitch separation (pitch = center-to-center
sensor at a
distance between adjacent windows) to identify the
direction of rotation, 1.e., theoffset sensor
corifiguration.
 Some designs of incremental
encoders have two identical tracks, one a
quarter-pitch offset from the other, and the two pick-off
senso rs are place d radially without any circumferential
offset, i.e., theoffset track configuration.
- A pick-off sensor for a reference pulse is also used.
• Sig7.aL interpretation depends on whether
the p ticular optical encoder is an incremental
device
an absolute device.
- We will focus on the incremental optical encoder.
- The output signals from either the offset sensor
configuration or the offset track configuration are the
same.
 Note that the pulse width and pulse-to-pulse period
(encoder cycle) are constant in each sensor output when
the disk rotates at constant angular velocity. When the
disk accelerates, the pulse width decreases
continuously; when the disk deceler ates, the pulse
width increases continuously.
- T e quarter-pitch offset in sensor location or track osition
is used to detennine the direction of rotation of the disk.
It is obtained by detern1ining the phase difference of the
two output signals, using phase­ detection circuitry. One
1nethod for determining the phase difference is to time
the pulses using a high- frequency clock signal.
 Pick OH Pick Off
2 1

Code O,llc

Refe-renc.e Pulw
Pock Off

Incren1ental Optical Encoder Disk

Offset-Sensor Configuration
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l.h t t f

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Clockwise (CW) ,b ,
D [
T,_ t
rota tio n:
V I lags V2 by a quarter of a cycle
(i.e., a phase lag of 90°)
·' D I,k
Counterclockwise (CCW) rotation:
W ·-
V 1 lea
le
/v 2 by a qua11er ofa cyc
h
··
1 D -
., T,,.,. t

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Incremental Encoder Pulse S ignals

(a) C r9t t\,9, 1.1 ...... ) CCW rotation .
(c) reference
• Two methods are availab le for
determining velocities using an increme
ntal encoder:
- pulse-counting method
- pulse-timing method
• P lse-Countin Method
- The pulse count over the sampling period of the digital
processor is measured and is used to calculate the
angular velocity. For a given sampling period, there is
a lower speed limit below which this method is not very
accurate.
 To compute the angular veloci tyco, suppose that the count during a
sample period T is a pulses. Hence, the average time for one pulse is
T / n. If there areN windows on the disk, the average time for one
revolution is NT/n. H e n c e c.J (rad/s) = 2n n/NT.

• Pulse-Timing Method
The time for one encoder cycle is measured using a high-frequency
cloc k sig n al. This me thod is particularly s uitable for measuring
low sgeeds accurately.
uppose that the clock frequency isf Hz. If III cycles of the clock signal
are counted during an encoder period (interval between two adjacent
windows), the time for that encoder cycle (i.e., the time to rota te through
one encoder pitch) is given by 111/f.
With a total of N windows on the track, the average time for one
revolution of the disk is Nm/f. Hence co = 2nf/Nm.
Magnetic encoder
Magnetic encoder

• The magnetic encoder detects rotational position information

as changes of the magnetic field, converts them into electrical
sign als, and outputs them. The simplest magnetic encoder
consists of a permanent magnet and a magnetic sensor. The
permanent magnet is attached to the tip of a rotating body
such as a motor shaft, and the magnetic sensor is fixed in a
state where it is mounted on a PCB board at a posit ion where it
receives the magnetic field generated by the permanent
magnet. When the permanent magnet attached to the motor
shaft rotates, the direction of the magnetic field detected by
the magnetic sensor changes, as a result the encoder detects
the rotational position and speed of the motor shaft.
Magnetic encoder

• In the following, details about the principle of operation

until the change of the magnetic field distribution is
converted into angular information , using a magnetic
encoder consisting of a magnetic sensor called a Hall
element and a permanent magnet. The Hall element is a
magnetic sensor that uses the phenomenon of the Hall
effect to output a voltage proportional to the strength of
the magnetic field.
Magnetic encoder
 Principle of magnetic
• encoder
When the motor shaft rotates, the magnetic field created by
the permanent magnet attached to the tip of the shaft also
rotates. At this time, the magnetic field rotates with
constant strength in the area near the center of the
rotation axis. The Hall element detects this change of
magnetic field distribution and converts it into an electrical
signal. The Hall element is a magnetic sensor that can
only detect the strength of a magnetic field in a single
direction. Therefore, in order to detect the rotational
position of the XV rotat ion plane, a Hall element for
detecting the strength of the X axis component (Bx) and a
Hall element for detecting the strength of the Y axis
component (By) are required.

By. ..ax

Twohal .,_nvnts
l n a M M O ' "
Advantages and applications of
magnetic encoder
• Since the magnetic encoder has a mechanism to detect
changes of the magnetic field, it has an excellent advantage of
being m.!2iJst in an environment contaminated with dust. o.i.!..
water. etc. Therefore, it is suitable for use in environments with
a lot of dust, oil, and water. For example, magnetic encoders
are used in industrial sewing machines used in environments
with a lot of lint and machine tools used in environments
where cutting oil and water splash.
• Another advantage is that it is possible to manufacture an
encoder that outputs an absolute angle with a very simple
structure of a rotation angle sensor IC and a permanent
magnet. Therefore, it is suitable for apf?lications that require
small size, light weight, and high reliability. For example, it is
used in machine too ls that use small-diameter motors and
factory automation machines that require durability.
Inductive encoders
Inductive encoders

• Position measuring devices that rely on the principle of

mutual induction include resolvers, l jnear variable
differential transformers (LVDTs), and inductive encoders.
Two of these technologies - resolvers and LVDTs - are based
on the construction and operation of a transformer.
• In the case of an LVDT, voltage is applied to a primary
winding and induced in two secondary windings - located
on either side of the primary - via a ferromagnetic core.
Distance is determined by the differential voltage output by
the two secondary windings, and direction is determined
by whether the output voltageis in phase or out of phase
with the primary voltage.
Inductive encoders
Inductive
encoders
• In the case of a resolver, a rotary transformer applies voltage
to the primary winding, which is located on the rotor. Voltage
is then induced in two secondary windings, oriented at 90
degrees as sine and cosine, on the stator. Position is
determined by the ratio of the voltages in the secondary
windings, and direction is determined by analyzing which
secondary voltage(sine or cosine} is leading.
• Inductive encoders are similar to LVDTs and resolvers, but
instead of using traditional windings, they use flat coils
(sometimes referred to as • traces") manufactured onto printed
circuit boards. Rotary induct ive encoders contain two main
parts - a stator (also referred to as the sensor) and a rotor
(also referred to as the target).
Inductive
encoders
• The stator contains a transmitter coil and two (or sometimes
more) receiver coils,printed onto the circuit board - or in some
cases, directly onto the stator substrate. The receiver coils are
printed so tliat they produce sine and cosine waves. In many
designs, electronic circuitry for signal processing is also
integrated onto the stator. The rotor, or target, is passive and is
either made of ferromagnetic material or made of a substrate
containing layers, or patterns, of conductive material such as
copper.
• When voltage is applied to the transmitter coil on the stator, or
sensor, an electromagnetic field is produced. As the rotor, or
target, passes over the sensor, eddy currents are generated on
the surface of the target. These eddy currents generate an
opposing field, which reduces the flux density between the
sensor and the target, causing a voltage to be generated at the
receiver coils on tlie sensor. The ampfitudes and phases of the
receiver vol tages change as the target moves, and the position
of the target can be determined from these voltages.
Inductive
encoders
• Inducti ve encoders are also available in linear versions. Here,
the target is a linear scale with ferromagnetic (or electrically
conducting) gratings, or stripes. The sensor (also referred to as
the read nead) contains the transmitter and receiver coils as
well as electronics for signal processing. As the read head
travels along the scale, the gratings of the scale cause
variations in the voltages induced in the receiver coils, and
these voltages indicate the sensor's linear position.
• Inductive encoders provide absolute position information and
have accuracies that fall between that of magnetic and optical
technologies - without the strict mounting considerations of
optical encoders. And they're insensitive to nearly all forms of
contamination or interference, including liquids, dirt and dust,
magnetic fields, EMI, and even severe vibrations. For rotary
measuring applications, the printed circuit board construction
of inductive encoders gives them a much smaller form factor
and more design flexibility than their resolver counterparts.
Capacitive encoders

• Two types of encoders dominate the general industrial

market-optical and magnetic. But capacitive encoders, a
relatively new introduction, offer resolution comparable to
optical devices, with the ruggedness of magnetic encoders.
Currently, there are only a handful of vendors for capacitive
encoders, but their suitability for applicationsrequiring high
precision and durability make them a good choice for the
semiconductor. electronics, medical, and defense industries.
How capacitive encoders work

• The basic princip le behind capacitive encoders is that

they detect changes in capacitance using a high-
frequency reference signal. This is accomplished with the
three main p a r t s - a stationary transmitter, a rotor, and a
stationary receiver. (Capacitive encoders can also be
provided in a "two-part" configuration, with a rotor and
a combined transmitter/receiver.) The rotor is etched
with a sinusoidal pattern, and as it ro tates, this pattern
modulates the high­ frequency signal of the transmitter in
a predictable way.
• The receiver disk reads the modulations, and on-board
electronics - a proprietary ASIC is used by the vendor
CUI Inc. - translate them into increments of rotary motion.
The electronics also produce quadrature signals for
incremental encoding, with resolution ranging from 48 to
2,048 pulses per revolution (PPR).
How capacitive encoders work

Capacitive enc;oder p,lncfple ol

operation
Transmitter Receiver

O
- •· Rotor
How capacitive encoders work

• Capacitive encoders work by transmitting a high-frequency

signal through a rotor that is etched with a sinusoidal pattern.
As the rotor moves, this pattern modulates the signal in a
predictable way. The receiver reads the modulations, and on­
board electronics translate them into increments of rotary
motion.
• In the proprietary capacitive Electric Encoder by Netzer
Precision Motion Sensors. the encoder has two operating
modes: Coarse Mode and Fine Mode. Coarse Mode is typically
used upon system start-up, to determine the initial position.
The encoder is then switched to Fine Mode for ongoing
operation. By breaking up the total measuring range into
small. equal. distinct segments, the scale of each segment can
be much finer than if the same scale were used over the
entire
measurina range. This enables very high resolution without
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LVDT (LINEAR VARIABLE
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER)
 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

LVDT (LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER)

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Construction of LVDT:
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 LVDT
• CONSIST OF THREE COIL SYMMETERICALLY SPACED ALONG THE
INSULATED TUBES
• THE LEFT SIDE COIL IS PRIMARY COIL AND OTHER TWO COILS ARE
SECONFARY COIL WHICH ARE CONNECTED PARALLEL TO EACH
OTHER.
• THE MAGNETIC OR IRON CORE MOVE BETWEEN THIS TWO COIL
ASTHE RESULT OF THE DISPLACEMENT BEING M ON ITORED
• THE A NPUT TO THE PRIMARY COIL,ACEMF ARE IN
DUCEDIN THE SEEC NDARY COIL
e core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the
voltages in uced in the secondary's to change. The coils are connected in
reverse s ries, so that the output voltage is the difference (hence "
differential ") etween the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its
cent ral position, equidistant between the two secondary's, equal but
opposite
voltagesare induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.
Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT)

v,
.
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a
primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about± 2 to± 400
mm in general.
• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insul {ed tube.
• Th central coil is primary coil and the other two
are s ondary coils.
• condary coils are connected in parallel in such a way
hat their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core
attached to the element of which displacement is to be
monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.
• Due to an alternat ing voltage input to the primary coil,
alt ernating electrom agnet ic forces (emfs) are
generated in secondary coils
When the magnet ic core is centrally placed with its
half portion in each of the secondary coil regions
then the ultant voltage is zero
If Me core is displaced from the central
position as s wn in Figure 2.2.7,
say, more in secondary coil 1
t an in coil 2, then more emf is generated in
one coil
If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the
value of result ant voltage increases in proportion
with the displacement
 - CORE POSITION -

MAGNITUDE OF
DIFFERENTIAL
AC OUTPUT

I
-100 - % OF FUU RANGE - + 100
I I
 The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used for ring
linear displacement. The transformer has three soleooidal coils placed end-to-end tube.
The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A
,cal ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides
alongthe axisof the tube.
1
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a Y.Pltage to b e i n du ced in each
secondary proport ional to its mutua l induct wi th the primary.The frequens:t_is usually In the
range1 to 10 Hz.
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the
secondariesto change.The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltageis the
difference (hence "differential") between the two secondary voltages.When the core is in its
central position, equidistant between the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are
in duced In t s e t w o coils, so the out put voltageis zero.
When the ore is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil Increasesas the other
decrease , causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltageis in
phase with th prim ary voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage
also increa es from zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the primary.The
magnitude of th output voltageis proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of
travel), whi is why the device is described as " linear". The phaseof the voltage indicatesthe
direction of t h displacement.
e ause the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, It can mo ve without friction, king
the LVDT a highly reliabledevice.The absence of any sliding or rotating contacts allowsthe T
to be completely sealedagainst the environment.
Ts are commonly used for position feedback in servQ.mechanism,s and for automated
urement in machine t0ols<and manyot her industrial and scientific applications.
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDTI
 Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDn
• The transformer which senses the angular displacement of the
conductor is known as the Rotary Variable Differential Transfor mer or
RVDT. It is the type of electromechanical transducer which gives the
linear output proportional to the input angular displacement.
• The rcuit of RVDT is shown in the figure below. The working of
the RV is similar to the LVDT. The only difference is that the LVDT uses
the s iron core for measuring the displacement, whereas the RVDT
uses e cam shape core rotated between the primary and secondary
winding
ith the help of the shaft.
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDn

Primary Secondary
winding winding

Shaft

I s r Es t
p
( • ,
Output

Core
I J
s, r - Es,
Eo= Es, - Es,

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDn
• The differentia l output voltage of the transformer increases
when the shaft rotates in a clockwise direction. And it
decreases when the shaft moves in an anti-clockwise
direction. The magnitude of the output voltagedepends on
the angular displacement and the direction of the shaft.
• When the Core is at NullPosition
• In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null
position then the induced e.m.f in the secondary windings
are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differentia l
o/p potential will be zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2,
where EO = E1-E2 = O
Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDn
• When theCore Rotatesin Clockwise Direction
The second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of
clockwise; more section of the core will enter across the primary
winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding
1s higher than secondary winding. Hence, the differential o/p
potential is positive, and the condition will be El > E2, where E0 =
E1-E2 = positive.
• When the Core Rotatesin Anticlockwise Direction
In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of
anticlockwise, more section of the core will be entered across the
secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f across the secondary
coil is higher than the primary coil. Hence, the differential o/p
potential is negative that means 1800 phase shift, and the
condition will be El < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.
RVDT
Advantages
The advantages of RVDT include the following.
• The consistency of RVDT is high
• The exactness of RVDT is high
• The li fespan is long
• The performance is repeatable
• The construction is compact and strong
• Durability
• Low cost
• Easy to handle electronic components
• Resolution is infinite
• Linearity is Excellent
• A wide ranee of dimension ranges
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RVDT
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following
• The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the
nozzle is not possible for all time.
• The output of the RVDT is lin ear (about +40 or -
40 degrees), so it restricts the usability.
RVDT
Applications
The applications of RVDT include the following.
• Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic
• Modern machine tools
• Controls Cockpit
• Controls Fuel
• Brake with cable systems
• Engines bleed air-systems
• Robotics
• Aircraft and Avionics
• Process Control industry
• Weapon and Torpedo Systems
• Engine fuel control
• Nose wheel steering systems
• Fly by wire systems
• Push reverser
• Actuators for controlling Fhght as well as Engine
• Ecological control systems
5YNCHRO
SYNCHR
O
• Synchros are electromagnetic devices that are used to
transmit positional data electrically from one location to
another. It can also be used to compute the sum of two
rotations, or the difference in angle between them and they
are also used in applications that require low output
torques. It can also be called as an electromagnetic
transducer which can convert the angular position of the
shaft into an electrical signal. Most ly AC transmission
system is known as synchros because of their synchronous
action in reproducing the angular movement of a shaft.
 Principle operation of synchro
• Synchro is a form of a rotating transformer that resembles a small
AC motor and they are widely used as an element of measuring
and control systems invo lving rotatable shafts. The primary coil is
wound on the rotor and couples magnetically to the secondary
coils on the stator and the connections to the external terminals
are through slip rings. Synchros mostly have three secondary
windings arranged 120 degrees apart to give the varying voltage
ratios as the p rmary winding is rotated. The rotor energizing
voltage is an AC eference voltage at 50 Hz and this induces a
voltage across each stator winding which is dependent on the
instantaneous angle between the rotor and stator coil axes. So the
voltage across any pair of stator terminals is, therefore, the sum or
difference, depending on the phase of the individual stator winding
voltages.It can also be called as an electromechanical
transducer. The magnitude of the magnetic coupling varies
between the primary and secondary according to the position of
the rotating element. This, in turn, varies the magnitude of the
output voltage
SYNCHR
O

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f,.,.tff'l-,t· '(

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m
How synchro is used in servo
system
Control synchro system
• The control synchro system is the most common of all
synchros and is extensively used in aircraft and navigation
systems. Control synchros are similar to the torque synchros
but the signal from the receiver is going to be amplified
to drive output and the impedance of the windings is
much higher so there is no danger of the system burn ing
out. The control transformer can act as a null detector and
can be used in servo systems. Control synchros can be
used in electromechanical servo and shaft positioning.
What is the use of
synchro
• It can be used for electromechanical servo and shaft
positioning and control synchros are used in aircraft
instruments and navigation systems. Synchros are used for
data transmission and it is used in radar antenna. Synchros
can be used in measurement and control applications
Microsyn
 Microsyn
• This is a variable-reluctance transducer used to detect small
motions, giving output signals as low as 0.01° of changes in
angles.
• The figure below shows an example of Microsyn:

, o n •
•
V
Microsyn

• In the Micros yn transducer above, the coils are connected in such a

way that at the null position of the rotary element, the voltages in
coils 1 and 3 are balanced by voltages induced in coils 2 and 4.
• The motion of the rotor in the clockwise direction increases the
reluctance of coils 1 and 3 while decreasing the reluctance of coils
2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage v0•
• The movement in the counterclockwisedirection causes a similar
effect in coils 2 and 4 with a 180° phase shift. A direction sensitive
output can be obtained by using phase-sensitivedemodulators
• The sensitivity of the device can be made as high as 5 V per
degree of rotation. The nonlinearity may vary from 0.5% to 1.0%
full scale.
• The key benefits of these transducers are that the rotor does not
have windings and slip-rings and the magnetic reaction torque is
also negligible.

AR.AP/Ml H
Application

• Microsyn transducers are expansively used in applications

involving gyroscopes.
Accelerometer Sensor
Accelerometer
Sensor
• The rate of change of velocity of the body with respect to
time is called acceleration. According to relative theory,
depending upon the relative object taken to measure
acceleration. there are two types of acceleration. The proper
acceleration, which is the physical acceleration of the body
relative to inertia or the observer who is at rest relative to
the object being measured.
• The coordinate acceleration depends upon the choice of
coordinate system and choice of observers. This is not
equal to proper acceleration. Accelerometer sensor is the
electromechanical device used to measure the proper
acceleration of the object.
Working Principle
• The basic under lying working principle of an accelerometer
is such as a dumped mass on a spring . When acceleration
is experienced by this device, the mass gets displaced till
the spring can easily move the mass, with the same rate
equal to the acceleration it sensed. Then this displacement
value is used to measure the give the acceleration.
• Accelerometers are available as digital devices and analog
devices. Accelerom eters are designed using different
methods. Piezoelectric. piezoresistive and capacitive
components are generally used to convert the mechanical
motion caused in accelerometer into an electrical signal.
Working Principle

• Piezoelectric accelerometers are made up of single crystals.

These use the piezoelectric effect to measure the acceleration.
When applied to stress, these crystals generate a voltage which
is interpreted to determine the velocity and orientation.
• Capacitive accelerometers use a silicon micro-machined
element. Here capacitance is generated when acceleration is
sensed and this capacitance 1s translated into a voltage to
measure the veloci ty values.
• Modern accelerometers are the smallest M EM S, consisting of a
cantilever beam with proof mass. Accelerometers are available
as two-dimensional and three-dimensional forms to measure
velocity along with orientation. When the upper-frequency
range, high-temperature range, and low pack.aged weight are
required, piezoelectric accelerometers are the best choice.
 Applications
The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
• For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.
• To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
• To display images inan upright pos-ition on screens of digital cameras.
• For flight stabilization in drones.
• Accelerometersare used to sense orientation , coordinate acceleration,vibration, shock.
• Used to detect theposition of the device in laptops and mobiles.
• · h-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial accelerationin biological applications for
,scrimination of behavioral patterns of animals.
Machinery health monitoring.
To detect faults in rotator machines.
These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the motion and
vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
• To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
• Navigation sys-terns make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the direction.
• Remote sensing devices also use accelerometers tomonitor active volcanoes.
Uses/Exampies

• Some of the examples of the applications of accelerometer

sensor are Aircrafts, missiles, Quake-catcher network for
scientific research of earthquakes, pumps, fan, rollers,
compressors, Zoll's AED plus, footpods, Intelligent
compaction rollers, airbag deployment system, electronic
stability control system in automobiles, tilting trains,
Gravimetry, camcorders, Glogger VS2, mobi le phones etc...
GPS
Sensor
 GPS
Sensor
• As we know GPS stands for Glo ba l Positioning System. The
system contains satellites and ground based control
installations. GPS sensor consists of surface mount chip
which processes signals from GPS satellites using a small
rectangular antenna, often mounted on the top of the GPS
chip.
GPS module is usually small board on which GPS sensor is
mounted with additional components.
• GPS receiver is a device which includes data display and other
components such as memory for data storage in addition to
GPS mod ule .
GPS
Sensor

07142
1

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Board with GPS

sensor
GPS
Sensor
• The figure-1 depicts breakout board along with GPS sensor
offered by Adafruit industries. GPS system consists of three
segments viz. space segment, control segment, user
segment. Space segment contains about 31 satellites as of
August 2018 which are located in the orbit about 12,500
miles above earth. Hence each of these satellites circle two
times in 24 hours. Control segment contains command,
contro l and monitoring stations. USer segment consists of
receiving devices (e.g. both government and private).
GPS Sensor Working
GPS Sensor
Working
• > As shown in figure-2, about four satellites are needed to
determine a position on the earth in 3 dimensional space.
Each of these satellites carry multiple atomic clocks which
maintain precise time and pseudo random number
generator in the form of linear feedback shift register.
> GPS receiver can distinguish signals from atleast four
satellites by comparing their received pseudo random bit
sequences and can calculate receiver's distance to each of
these satellites by comparing arrival times of satellite
signals.
> Distance = transit time (sec) x speed of light (meter/sec)
 GPS Sensor
Working
• ,.. GPS satellites transmit on several frequencies simultaneously.
One such frequency known as L1 (1575.42 MHz) is used for
civilian applications where as the other frequency L2 (1227.6 MHz)
is used for military applications. Refer GPS and GNSS frequency
bands >> for more information on gps and gnss frequencies.
,.. GPSmodule housing GPS sensor requires DC power supply. It
starts outputting data as soon as it identifies the satellites within
its range. The data follows plain ASCII protocol known as NMEA
protocol. The transmission rate is either 4800 bps or 9600 bps and
uses {8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit) for decoding. The data blocks
are known as sentences which are of about 80 characters in
length. Refer GPS Sentences > > for more information. These gps
sentences contain latitude, longitude, altitude and data recording
time. These sentences are decoded by connecting microcontroller
with GPS module and writing small program.
Bluetooth Sensors
Bluetooth
Sensors
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 Bluetooth
•
Sensors
At the moment, the world has been made more brilliant by the rapid
advancements in technology. New devices and ideas have risen
continuously, thereby improving the prevailing technologies and
generating new market sections. Similarly, Bluetooth technological
advances have contributed to the birth of Bluetooth Low Energy
(BLE), also referred to as Bluetooth Smart. The Bluetooth Low Energy
is a short- range, low-power with a less-data-rate
wireless ommunicationprotocol developed by the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group {SIG.l Its encrusted protocol stack is designed in such
a way that it competently transfers insignificant amounts of data with
less consumption of power. Due to this, Bluetooth Low Energy is the
most preferred wireless protocol for battery-operated applications.
This article will explore the technical features of Bluetooth sensors,
how to connect and use Bluetooth sensors, how Beacon sensors can
be used for business, and how to read and control sensor data in
Arduino using Bluetooth.
Transmit Data using Bluetooth
Beacon sensors
• Bluetooth Beacon sensors are small transmitters that
broadcast signals to close portable devices using Bluetooth
Low Energy technology . They have an action range of
around 90 meters and can only transmit data but cannot
receive it. Once the sensor detects the nearby devices, it
sends dig i tal messages to the targeted devices. Currently,
beacons are used proportiona lly with mobile applications.
These mobile applications obtain a unanimously unique
identi fier to perform several functions, such as triggering a
location -based action and tracking customers.
Transmit Data using Bluetooth
Beacon sensors
1. Information
,.,
[:J
broadcasted ...
frombeacon
2. Phone receives
Information and
sends to backend
systems

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or message delivered
over netw0rk 3 . CRM and ;
5. In-store Analytics backend
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systems receive
experience for
and
customer
process
information
Technical Features of a Bluetooth
Sensor
a) Radio interface
• The Bluetooth loT sensors work with the same spectrum
range of between 2.400-2.4835 GHz ISM band as classic
Bluetooth technology. The only differenceis that Bluetooth
Low Energy uses a diff erent set of channels. It has forty 2-
MHz channels, whereas classic Bluetooth has seventy-nine
1-MHz channels. The Gaussian frequency shift modulation
is used to transmit data within a channel in the BLE
technol o gy . I t has a b it rate of 1 Mbit/s but with an
option in Bluetooth 5 of 2 Mbit/s. Also, it has a maximum
transmit power of 10 mW and 100 mW in Bluetooth 5.
Technical Features of a Bluetooth
Sensor
b) Advertising and discovery
• Bluetooth Low Energy sensors are spotted through a
technique based on broadcasting advertising packets. It is
usually done using 3 distinct frequencies to decrease
interference. The advertising device sends packets of not
lessthan one of the three frequencies with a repetition
period termed as the advertising interval. In each
advertising interval, there is an addition of a random delay
of 10 milliseconds that reduces the chance of numerous
consecutive collisions. The scanner attends to the
frequencies for a period termed as the scan window, which
is occasionally recurrent after each scanning interval.
Technical Features of a Bluetooth
Sensor
c) Battery impact
• Bluetooth Low Energy sensors are specially designed to
work even with shallow power consumption . Various power
necessities are required for devices with central and
peripheral roles. A study conducted by a beacon software
company Aislelabs conveyed that computer peripherals, for
instance,propinquity beacons, regular ly function for up to 2
years using a 1,000mAh coin cell battery. The Bluetooth
Low Energy protocol makes this possible due to its power
efficiency. BLE tr ansmit s small packets; hence it 's ideal for
high and audio bandwidth data compared to Bluetooth
Classic.
Technical Features of a Bluetooth
Sensor
d) 2M PHY
• A new doubled symbol rate transmission mode has been
introduced by Bluetooth 5. Initially, Bluetooth Low Energy
sensors only transmitted 1 bit per symbol, but with
Bluetooth 5, they can data with double rates. However, the
new transmission mode pairs the bandwidth to 2 MHz from
about 1 MHz, making more intrusions on the edge areas.
The ISM frequency band segmentation has 40 channels
with a spaced distance of 2 MHz, which is essentially
different from the Bluetooth 2 EDR.
Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
e) GATT operations
• The GATT prot oco l is essentia l to the user as it offers
several commands regarding the discovered in formation
about the server. These commands include:

• Discovering UUIDs for each principal services

• Finding a given UUID for every service
• Finding subordinate services for a given principal service
• Discovering every feature for a specific service
• Finding features that match a specified UUID
• Reading all signifiers for a precise distinctive
 Pairing a Bluetooth Sensor with a
Smartphone
• the steps followed when pairing Bluetooth-compatible sensors
using a smartphone. The Aventura receives the sensor pairing data
together with the settings once the pairing process is complete.
a) Ensure that (Connect) is on, thenfrom the(MENU) tap (Device)
Start the sensor
• Once the Bluetooth smart sensor signal is detected, it displays a
message on the smartphone.
• To comp lete the pairing process of the already displayed sensor,
tap (Pairing).
• Press ($kif:!) if the gadget's name is dissimilar from the expected,
then tap (Pairing) aga,n. Repeat this occasionally till the
anticipated device 1s shown.
• When using the Bluetooth le sensor to pair, the sensor name
is displayed with an "A."
• Over 18 distinct sensor identifications , includingthe P.C, can
be paired.
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Pairing a Bluetooth Sensor with
a Smartphone
c) Esteblish the tirecircumference for anysensor withspeed
meesurements
• Press (Device ), and al so tap the Sensor name > [Tire
Circumference]. Tire circumference is the approximate length of
the outer rim in each tire. Sensors that cannot measure speed
are never displayed.
• The tire size list is displayed once tapping is done. The tire
circumference is selected per the tire size shown on the tire
side.
• Original value: 2096 mm
• To any Bluetooth door sensor capable of speed
measurements, it is recommendable to set the tire
circumference.
• It is possible to cancel the pairing and changed the
device names from this screen.
 Pairing a Bluetooth Sensor with
a Smartphone
• After following all those steps, the pairing process of the Bluetooth
sensor is now complete.
• Repeat the same procedure when pairing wi th another Bluetooth sensor.
• After completing the pairing proces,s it is essential to mount the
Bluetooth motion sensor close to you. Also, follow the guidelines written
on the individual sensor's instruction manual appropriately to determine
the suitable place to mount the sensor.
Important Information
• Pair every usable senso.r
• Never pair Bluetooth smart sensors in the exact location or at any venue
with many other users. Doing this can make the sensors pair up with
other irrelevant devices. A Bluetooth mesh sensor can epitom ize a sole
physical BLE sensor .
• When working with third-party Bluetooth sensors, only an Android
smartphone can transfer data to the Aventur,awhereas aniPhone
cannot.
11.J. AP/ME<!-1
RANGE
sensor
Working principle of Range
sensors
• The distance between the object and the robot hand
is measured using the range sensors Within it is
range of operation.
• The calculation of the distance is by visual processing. Range
sensors find use in robot navigation and avoidance of the
obstacles in the path.
• The - location and the general shape characteri stics of the
part in the work envelope of the robot S done by special
app lications for the range sensors.
• There are several approaches like, triangulation method,
structured lighting approach and time-of flight range finders
etc. In these cases the source of illumination can be light­
source, laser beam or based on ultrasonic.
 Triangulation M ethod:
- - - - •- - - -
• The object is swept over by T -
a narrow beam of sharp
l
•
light.
The se sor focused on a - .
-
small spot of the object
1
surf ce detects the reflected
b m of light. -} --- :··--
f .8'is theangle made by
the ill source and the sensor, ··· O• (Lt •l.e>W• .
the distance
..t wn• •o••"•

d • 6i. tanO
Tbt dP\a.llOf 'd" Clllft be .. u,tnmrlm!Nd lnlO, , o
 Structured Lighting Approach:
• This approach consists of projecting a light pattern the
distortion of the pattern to calculate the range. A pattern in
use today is a sheet of ligh t generated narrow slit.
• As illustrated in. Figure, the in tersection yields a light S t r i p !
which is viewed through a television camera displaced a
l
distance B from the light source. r---......_.
•
The,stripe pattern is easily analysed by a computer to obtain
ra ge information. For example, an inflection indicates a ,, .
Ve
c ange of surface, and a break corresponds to a gap between. ·
I
urfaces.
Specific range values are computed by first calibrating the
system. One of the simplest arrangements is shown in
Figure, which represents a top view of Figure.
In this, arrangement, the light source and camera are placed at
the same height, and the sheet of light is perpendicular to the
line joining tne origin of the light sneet and the centre of the
camera lens.
RF
Beacon
RF
Beacon
• An RF Beacon is a circuit that produces a continuous pulse
that helps with tracking down an item or vehicle. One use
for such a beacon would be to locate a rocket when it
comes backdown too far away to be seen. In this DIV
Hacking project, we will use a 433 MHz RF transmitter and
a pair of 555 astable oscillators to create an RF beacon.
 RF Beacon Circuit
Schematic
low Frrqutncy H,gh Frrqurncy 01cillator
• 01c,llalor

\[I 5k t
 How Does the RF Transmitter
Work
• The RF beacon consists of three main units; A low frequency 555
oscillato r. an audio (high frequency) oscillator, and an RF 433MHz
module. The first unit. a low-frequency oscillator, creates a pulse at
a frequency of approximately 1Hz which has an extremely large

6ty cycle (close to 99.9%). This signal is then inverted thanks to Ql

n the form of a NOT g ate . this creates a pulse with a duty cycle near
0.01%. The low duty cycle pulse is connected to the RESET of an
audio 555 oscillator. When the output from the low-frequency
oscillator stage (after Ql) becomes OV. the audio oscillator (IC2). is
disabled and the result is no audio signal being produced. When the
output of the low-frequency oscillator becomes VCC then the audio
oscillator (IC2) is enabled and produces an audio able tone. This
signal is inverted and then fed into the RF module which emits a
receivers.
tone on iKlb)'S
the 433MHz
r spectrum which can easily be picked up by
A,$1. A.P/t-lKH
<
How Does the RF Transmitter
Work
• The circuit can be built using through hole techniques
including PCB, solderless breadboard, stripboard, and even
matrix board. While the circuit shown here is rather large, it
can easily be shrunk down using surface mount
components. That way, the circuit can easily be fitted onto
small drones and RC planes while also keeping weight
down to add RF tracking capabilities. For this project, a
custom PCB has been designed to demonstrate the circuit
using CNC milling. All the files needed for this project can
be found here including the CNC code needed to make the
PCB: RF Beacon Project Files.
Ultrasonic Ranging Sensor
Ultrasonic Ranging Sensor

• An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the

distance to an object using ultrasonic sound waves.

An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and receive

ultrasonic pulsesthat relay back information about an
object's proximity.

High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to

produce distinct echo patterns.
Ultrasonic Sensors Works

• Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a sound wave at a

frequency above the range of human hearing. The
transducer of the sensor acts as a microphone to receive
and send the ultrasonicsound. Our ultrasonic sensors. like
many others, use a single transducer to send a pulse and to
receive the echo. The sensor determ ines the distance to a
target by measuring time lapses between the sending and
receiving of the ultrasonic pulse.
Ultrasonic Sensors Works

Tra n sm
it

))
-
) ,..,.. ,

-
I
Ultrasonic Sensors Works

• The working principle of this module is simple. It sends an ultrasonic

pulse out at 40kHz which travels through the air and if there is an
obstacle or object, it will bounce back to the sensor. By calculating
the travel time and the speed of sound, the distance can be
calculated.

Ultrasonic sensors are a great solution for the detection of clear

objects. For liquid level measuremen,t appl ications that use infrared
sensors, for instance. struggle with this particularuse case because
of target translucence.

For presence detection. ultrasonic sensors detect objects regardless

of the color, surface, or materia l (unlessthe material is very soft like
wool, as it would absorb sound.)

To detect transparent and other items where optica l technologies

may fail, ultrasonic sensors are a reliable choice.
Features

• Power supply: SV DC.

• Effectual angle: <15°.
• Ranging distance: 25cm - 500 cm.
• Resolution: 1 cm.
• Ultrasonic Frequency: 40k Hz.
Hardware

• Connect this triple axis magnetometer breadkout module to

your Arduino/ Crowduino 12C wires(SDA:A4, D18;SCL:A5,
D19)as b elow:
Technical characteristics

• Prismatic PVC reflecting translucent with protector in rigid

PVC welded by ultrasounds.
• Reinforcement in adhesive of reflecting and translucent
vinyl. Subjection in velcro and nylon rivets. Anti UV
processing.
Advantages
• Tone of light. Its yellow light tone allows you to see double
than with an amber light and triple than with a redorange
light.
• Color. The dominant colors in city (halogenous lamps) or in
the morning correspond to warm ranges.
• Barbolight beam diffuser has a different color that contrasts
a lot.
• Sparkle. The light emitted by the lantern is not distributed
in homogenous way, so it changes with respect to the rake,
producing an effect sparkle when it moves.
• Reflectivity. Beam di ffuser is made of a high reflectivity
material so its visibility is very superior even without
emission of the lantern and only with security light.
• Volume. Its foldable systems allow being transported easily
Laser range sensor
Laser range sensor

• Laser distance sensors are designed for non-contact

distance measurements: laser gauges for measuring ranges
up to 1Om, laser distance sensors for up to 270m. These
sensors are used for positioning and type classification in
machine building and handling equipment.
• Here are applications for detections, measurements or
positioning . What different laser sensors have in common
are the advantages that the use of laser light provides. A
first advantage is the high light intensity, which enables
very accurate measurement, positioning or detection (down
to nanometers). Another advantage is the measurement
speed; this is very high due to the use of light as a
medium.
Different types of sensors that
work on the basis of laser light
are:

--
Laser distance sensors
Disglacement

--
Laser grojectors
Laser ghotoele
La er ctric sensors
light curt5!
sensors

-
Positioning lasers
Laser edge detection sensors
in
1.Laser distance sensors

• Laser distance sensors measure distances and allow it to

take measurements at great distances. These distance
sensors work on the basis of the Time-Of-Flight (ToF) pr
inciple, which means that the sensor emits a laser beam
and receives the reflection from it. The time that elapses
between sending and receiving the laser light ensures that
the laser distance sensor can internal ly determine the
distance. The distance over which the measurements can
be taken differs per series.
Working Principle of a LASER
Sensor
• In a LASER sensor, the measurement of distance is based on
the triangulation principle. By this principle, the LASER bea
m wi ll be incident on the object. LASER sensor would strike
the object as a small point; some part of the light will be
reflected back. The receiver of the sensor will detect the
position of this point. The angle of incidence will change
according to the distance and so will the position of the
LASER point in the receiver.
Working of LASER
Sensor
• LASER beam is incident on the object which is to be sensed.
Since LASER is a highly focused beam of light, it would appear
as a small bright dot.
• When the LASER beam is incident on the object which is to be
sensed, some part of light would be reflected back by the
object. This reflected light is sensed by a receiver in th e sensor,
say a photodiode. The sensor has internal circuitry that would
do the signal processing part.
• In signal processing, the time taken by the light to emit and the
time taken by the fight to reflect back are cafculated. The
speed of LASER light emission is fixed. So, the object's distance
from the sensor can be calculated simply by using speed and
time. The sensor will generate an electrical signal according to
the distance sensed.This signal is either digital or analog.
2. Laser Displacement Sensors

• Displace me nt sensors are generally used to detect objects.

Displace me nt sensors are not aimed to measure distance. In
Displacement sensors, the sensor would emit LASER light. A
passing object would reflect the beam when the object
crosses the displacement sensors. This reflected beam
would make the sensor judge the received reflection as a
detection of the object.
• Displace me nt sensors are more versatile. Displacement
sensors can be used in thickness measurement also.
Displace me nt sensors can be used in profile measurements
and position measurements .
2. Laser Displacement Sensors

Laso,

••

••
.• •
•
.•••• .·
• • . ....'
-. - -. · - -
• ••
••

Sensn
i gobjec:t
3. Laser Projector

• LASER projectors are LASERs that can project LASER light on

the desired surface. The projected light can determine ma
rgins, dimensions, or position in an application. LASER
projectors are used in industries like texti le or e lectro nics.
LASER projectors are also used for presentatio ns in offices,
classrooms, hotels, museums, showrooms, and attractions to
simulation applications.
4. LASER Photoelectric Sensors

• LASER photoelectric sensors are used where the processes

are carried out at high speed. For example,
counting/detecting the product. Because of their capacity
to detect objects at high speeds, they are also known as
trigger sensors.
5. LASER Edge Detection Sensors

• LASER edge detection sensors are used where inline

detection and counting one side of the product are needed.
The LASER edge detection sensors are mounted in the
production line. The LASER edge detection sensors are used
where thin sheets/plates must be detected on the basis of
thickness so as to limit accumulations and production errors.
6. Laser Light
Curtains
• These types of laser sensors consist of a transmitter and
a receiver. There is a barrier of parallel laser beams
emitted between the transmitter and receiver. Objects
passing through the barrier are detected and also
measured.

u
7. Laser Positioning
sensor
• These lasers are used for the positioning of the products.
The positioning laser transmits a projection and it does not
receive the reflection.
 Advantages of LASER
sensors
• The LASER sensor's measurement is very accurate.
• LASER sensors have a high direction of the beam and a small
divergence angle of light.
• The level of brightness is hig h for LASER sensors.
• LASER sensors can range up to several kilometers.
• The frequency width for LASER sensors is smaller than ordinary
light.
• Contactless measurement is done by LASER sensors, so does
not interrupt the process.
• Digi tal, as well as analog outputs, are available for LASER
sensors.
• LASER sensors can be used in all industrial environments.
• Detects a wide range of materials.
• It is easy to in stall Laser sensors .
• •Resist-anH 0 'fllt'!!rferenceand environmental noise.
Disadvantages of LASER
sensors
• LASER sensors are more expensive than analog measuring
devices.
• LASER sensors are very delicate because very precise
calibration needs to be maintained.
• In some processes, a very high level of precision is not
needed. Hence LASER sensors are not suitable there.
• LASER sensors can damage eyesight.
Applications of LASER
sensors
• Location of object
• Quality control
• Aligning the railway track
• Measuring wire diameter
• Welding head position
• Measure brake rotor thickness
• Vehicle counting
• Limit recognition of the width and height of the
vehicle
• Measuring the distance between two sheets
• Power too l cont rol
• Checking wood thickness
• Deviation control in the process
• Quality Control
• cHel:k the\ if cihcl thickness