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Graph Theory
Lecture - 4

Dr. Ilyas Fakhir

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Operations on graphs

• Union of two graphs

 Let G1(V1, E1) and G2(V2, E2) be two graphs. Then the graph
whose vertex set is V1V2 and the edge set E1 E2 is called
the union of G1 and G2 and it is denoted by G1  G2
G1 G2 = (V1 V2, E1 E2)

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• Intersection of two graphs
 Let G1(V1,E1) and G2(V2,E2) be two graphs. Then the graph
whose vertex set is V1∩V2 and the edge set E1∩E2 is called
the intersection of G1 and G2 denoted by G1∩G2 is
G1∩G2 = (V1∩V2, E1∩E2), Provided V1∩V2 ≠ϕ
• Ring sum
 Consider a graph whose vertex set is V1UV2 and the edge set
E1 E2, where  is the symmetric difference of E1 and E2 then
G1 G2=(V1UV2, E1 E2) is called the ring sum of G1 and G2 .
 Note: Symmetric difference means
E1E2 = (E1 – E2)U(E2 – E1)=(E1UE2) –(E1∩E2)

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• The following consequences of the above definition of union, intersection

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and ring sum
 G1U G2 = G2U G1
 G1 G2 = G2 G1
 If G1 and G2 have no edge in common (edge-disjoint), then G1∩ G2 is a
null graph and G1 G2 = G1U G2
 If G1 and G2 have no vertex in common (vertex-disjoint), then G1∩ G2
does not exist
 Sometimes, we also write G1 + G2 for G1U G2 .
 Note that G1,G2 ⊆ G1U G2 and G1∩ G2 ⊆ G1,G2.
 G – U := G[V \U, E], G – F := (V, E \F ), G + F := (V, E U F ).
If U = {u} or F = {e} then we simply write G – u, G – e and G + e for G
– U, G – F and G + F , respectively.
 The complement of G, denoted by G or GC, is defined as the graph (V;
V1V2\ E). In particular, G + G is a complete graph, and G = (G + G) – E. 4
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V2 V2
V1 V1 V6

V3

V3
V5 V4
V4 G2
G1
V1 V2 V6
V2
V1 V6 V1 V2

V5 V4 V3
V5
V4 V3 V4 V3 G1G2
G1UG2 G1∩G2
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Complement of Graph
 Operations on Graphs

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• The cartesian product G x H of graphs G and H is defined as follows:
 label the vertices of H in some way;
 in a copy of G, replace each vertex of G by a copy of H;
 add an edge joining vertices in two adjacent copies of H if and only if they
have the same label.
 In other words, if G has vertex set V(G) = {a1, a2, ... , ag } and H has vertex
set V(H) = {b1,b2 , … ,bh } , then G x H has vertex set V(G) x V(H), and the
edges set of G x H is defined as follows: (ai , bj ) is adjacent to (ak , bl) if
 ai = ak and bj ∼ bl or (∼ represents adjacent)
 bj = bl and ai ∼ ak
 It is clear that G x H and H x G are isomorphic. Similarly (G x H) x J and
G x (H x J) are isomorphic.
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 Cartesian Product: Example

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Let’s create P3 × P2 as an example:

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Cartesian Product: Example

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(a1 , b3)
(a1 , b2)
(a1 , b1) (a1 , b4)

(a2 , b3)
(a2 , b2)
(a2 , b1) (a2 , b4)

(a3 , b1) (a3 , b4)

(a3 , b2) (a3 , b3)

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Operations on Graph

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• Decomposition
 A graph G is said to be decomposed (or partitioned) into two
subgraphs H1 and H2 if H1H2 = G and H1∩H2= a null graph.
 Where the null graph is one without any edges. In other words,
every edge of G occurs either in H1 or in H2, but not in both.
Some of the vertices, however, may occur in both H1 and H2 .
• Deletion
 If v is a vertex in a graph G, then G-v denotes the subgraphs of G
obtained by deleting v and all edges incident on v from G, then G-v is
called vertex deleted subgraph of G.

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B B
B

e
C
A C A C
A

v D
v D
D
G G-e
G-v

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• Fusion
 A pair of vertices Vi and Vj in a graph are said to be fused (or
merged) if these two vertices are replaced by a single new vertex v
in such a way that every edge that was incident on Vi or Vj (or both)
is incident on v.

D
A A

C
C v
B B
E

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Distance in Connected Graph

• Thedistance between two vertices x and y of a connected

graph is represented as D(x, y).
• Two vertices of G are connected if and only if they lie in the
same component of G; G is a connected graph if and only if
all pairs of its vertices are connected.
• Ifvertices x and y are connected, then their distance D(x, y)
is the length of the shortest path joining them; by definition
D(x, x) = O.

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Example

• If
G is a connected graph, the distance function D(x, y) has
the following properties for all vertices x, y and z:
 (i) D(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
 (ii) D(x, y) = D(y, x);
 (iii) D(x, y) + D(y, z) ≥ D(x, z).

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 Radius, Diameter and Eccentricity

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• Suppose G is a connected graph and x is a vertex of G. The eccentricity
ε(x) of x is the largest value of D(x,y), where y ranges through all the
vertices. i.e. ε(x) = max{D(x,y): y in V(G)}.
• The distance from a particular vertex to all other vertices in the graph is
taken and among those distances, the eccentricity is the highest of
distances.
• The diameter Dim = Dim(G) is the maximum value of ε(x) for all vertices
x of G. Thus, Dim(G) = max{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The radius R = R(G) is the smallest value of ε(x).
Therefore, R(G) = min{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The minimum among all the maximum distances between a vertex to all
other vertices is considered as the radius of the Graph G.
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 Example

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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure given below.
What are the diameter and radius of this graph?
 The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a) = D(a, c) = D(a,
e) = 3. Similarly ε(b) = D(b, c) = D(b, e) = 2, ε(c) = D(c, a) = D(c,
d) = 3, ε(d) = D(d, c) = 3, ε(e) = D(e, a) = 3, ε(f) = D(f, a) = D(f,
d) = 2. So Dim(G) = 3 and R(G) = 2.

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 Example

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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure given below.
What are the diameter and radius of this graph?
 The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a) = D(a, b) =
D(a, c) = D(a, c) = 1. Similarly ε(a) = D(a, e) = D(a, f) = 2, ε(a) =
D(a, g) = 3. Similarly, ε(b) = ε(c) = ε(e) = ε(f) = ε(g) = 3 & ε(d) =
2.

Dim(G) = 3.
R(G) = 2.

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Example

• If G is a connected weighted graph, the weighted distance

function W(x, y) has the following properties for all vertices
x, y and z in G:
(i) W(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
(ii) W(x, y) = W(y, x);
(iii) W(x, y) + W(y, z) ≥ W(x, z).

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Cutpoints and Bridges

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• Among connected graphs, some are connected so slightly that removal
of a single vertex or edge will disconnect them. Such vertices and
edges are quite important.
• A vertex x is called a cutpoint in G if G – x contains more components
than G does; in particular if G is connected, then a cutpoint is a vertex
x such that G – x is disconnected.
• Similarly, a bridge (or cutedge) is an edge whose deletion increases
the number of components.

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Example

• As an example, consider the graphs in Figure below; the left-hand

graph has cutpoints u and y and cutedge uy, while the right-hand
graph has cutpoint x and no cutedge.

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