1.the Immune System Modified

Overview of the immune system
 Terminology:
o Immunise; to raise up
o Immunity: ability of responsiveness
o Immunogen: substance elicit immune response
o Immunology; study of immunity
o Immune system; cells, tissues, organs of immunity
Immunity
 All the mechanisms used by the body as protection against
environmental agents that are foreign to the body.
 Two types:
1.Innate immunity
2.Acquired immunity (adaptive)
Immunization
Active: Passive: Adoptive:
•Immunization •Immunization •The transfer of
of an individual through the transfer immunity by the
by of specific antibody transfer of immune
administration of from an immunized cells.
an antigen. individual to a
. nonimmunized
individual.
Innate immunity
 Diverse cellular and subcellular components with

which an individual is born.
 Characteristics: antigen nonspecific, rapid response,

no memory.
 Components: natural barriers (skin, mucous

membrane), phagocytes, natural killer cells, and
complements.
Acquired Immunity (Adaptive)
 Acquired following contact with an antigen by activation of

lymphocytes bearing antigen-specific receptors.
 Characteristics: antigen specific, slow response (days),
memory.
 Components: lymphocytes, antigen receptors, secreted
molecules (antibodies, cytokines).
 The compound that induce acquired immune response is
termed an antigen.
.
 Immunity can be acquired either Actively or Passively.
 Actively when a person is exposed to microorganisms or foreign
substances (antigens).
 Passively when antibodies are transferred from one person to another.
 Both actively and passively acquired immunity can be obtained by
natural or artificial means.
● Naturally
 Active immunity
o person is exposed to antigens,
 Passive immunity involves the
o natural transfer of antibodies from a mother to her infant.
o Certain antibodies are also passed from the mother to her
nursing infant in breast milk, especially in the first secretions,
called colostrum.
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● Artificially acquired
 Passive immunity involves the
o Injection of antibodies into the body.
o Artificially acquired passive immunity is
o Immediate,
o Short-lived because antibodies are degraded by the
recipient within 3 weeks.
 Active immunity is the result of vaccination
8
Vaccination (Immunization): A process of induction of
immunity to a pathogen through the injection of a weaken,
modified or related form of the pathogen which is no longer
pathogenic
•The Discovery of Vaccination (1796)
•Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
•He inoculated a young boy with pus from a lesion of a
person having cowpox.
•He then exposed the boy to smallpox
•This exposure failed to cause disease
•Vaccinia (cowpox)
Eradication of smallpox (1979, WHO)
Major characteristics of the acquired immune
response
1. Specificity: the ability to discriminate among

different molecular entities and produce specific
response.
2. Adaptiveness: the ability to respond to
previously unseen molecules.
3. Discrimination between self and non-self
4. Memory (anamnestic response): the ability to
recall previous contact with a foreign molecule
and respond to it in a learned manner.
Cells involved in the acquired immune response
 B lymphocytes: produced and mature in the bone marrow.
 T lymphocytes: produced in the bone marrow and mature
in the thymus.
 Antigen presenting cells (APC): they process and present
antigen to the antigen-specific receptors expressed on T
lymphocytes. Include some cells like macrophages and
dendritic cells. APCs express major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) molecules on their surface to facilitate their
interaction with T cells.
 Neutrophils and mast cells: participate in innate and
acquired immune response.
Clonal selection theory
 T and B lymphocytes of many specificities
exist before there is any contact with the
foreign antigen.
 Each lymphocyte carries on its surface
receptor molecules of only a single specificity.
 Surface receptor combine with the foreign
antigen (or one of its epitops) and start
proliferation and differentiation.
 B cells produce antibodies and T cells
produce cytokines
Humoral and cell mediated immunity
 Acquired immune responses have been divided into two arms:
1.B cell mediated (humoral immunity): B cells express surface
antibodies (immunoglobulins) specific to an antigen. Binding of
antigens stimulates B cells to begin making the secreted form
of the same antibody.
2.T cell mediated (cellular immunity): T cells having T cell
receptors(TCRs) bind only with antigens expressed on APC
and produce a response depending on the type of T cells.
 Several subsets of T cells exist including: helper T cells (TH
cells), cytotoxic T cells (TC cells), and regulatory T cells (Treg
cells).
Lymphocytes receptors
Functions of T lymphocyte
 B-cell help: TH cells function by releasing cytokines, which provide
various activation signals for B cells.
 Inflammatory effects: on activation, certain TH cells release cytokines that
induce the migration and activation of monocytes and macrophages,
leading to inflammatory reactions.
 Cytotoxic effects: TC cells are able to deliver a lethal hit on contact with
their target cells, leading to their death.
 Regulatory effects: Treg cells work to suppress autoimmunity.
Activation of T cells requires:
1. Binding of TCR to the antigen presented on APC.
2. Costimulation: involves various cytokines (IL-1, IL-4, and IL-6) and cell
surface molecules expressed on APC such as CD40 and CD86 that
enhance TCR binding with antigen.
Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
 Functions:
1. Recognize and bind specifically to a unique epitope,
2. Perform a specific biologic function after combining with the antigen.
 Consist of two identical light (L) chains and two identical heavy (H)
chains linked by disulfide bridges.
 The amino terminal regions of both H and L chains bind antigens.
 There are five major classes of H chains: γ, α, μ,ε, and δ).
 Five major classes of immunoglobulins depending on the type of H
chain: IgG (can cross the placenta), IgM (largest antibody), IgA (found in
secretions), IgE (allergy), and IgD (membrane bound).
Generation of diversity in the immune response
 The number of antigenic specificities against which an
immune response could possibly be mounted is 106 -
107.
 These specificities can be produced by genetic
recombination, in which a protein could be encoded
by a DNA molecules composed of a set of minigenes.
 It is possible to produce an enormous repertoire of
specificities from a limited number of gene fragments
by random combination of minigenes.
Damaging effects of the immune response
 Hypersensitivity: reactivity against an antigen that is
greater than normal. Four types are defined (I-IV
hypersensitivity).
 Autoimmunity: an immune response to self tissues or

components. Such response may have pathologic
consequences leading to autoimmune diseases.

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Overview of the immune system

 Diverse cellular and subcellular components with

 Characteristics: antigen nonspecific, rapid response,

 Components: natural barriers (skin, mucous

 Acquired following contact with an antigen by activation of

1. Specificity: the ability to discriminate among

 Autoimmunity: an immune response to self tissues or

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