MEASUREMENT

Measurement in everyday life

Measurement of mass Measurement of volume

 Measurement in everyday life

Measurement of length Measurement of temperature

 Need for measurement in physics

• To understand any phenomenon in physics we have to

perform experiments.

• Experiments require measurements, and we measure

several physical properties like length, mass, time,
temperature, pressure etc.

• Experimental verification of laws & theories also needs

measurement of physical properties.
 Physical Quantity
A physical property that can be measured and
described by a number is called physical quantity.
Examples:
• Mass of a person is 65 kg.
• Length of a table is 3 m.
• Area of a hall is 100 m2.
• Temperature of a room is 300 K
 Types of physical quantities
1. Fundamental quantities:
The physical quantities which do not depend on any
other physical quantities for their measurements
are known as fundamental quantities.

Examples:
• Mass • Time
• Length • Temperature
 Types of physical quantities
2. Derived quantities:
The physical quantities which depend on one or more
fundamental quantities for their measurements are
known as derived quantities.

Examples:
• Area • Speed
• Volume • Force
 Units for measurement
The standard used for the measurement
of a physical quantity is called a unit.
Examples:
• metre, foot, inch for length
• kilogram, pound for mass
• second, minute, hour for time
• fahrenheit, kelvin for temperature
Characteristics of units
Well – defined
Suitable size
Reproducible
Invariable
Indestructible
Internationall
y acceptable
 CGS system of units

• This system was first introduced in France.

• It is also known as Gaussian system of units.

• It is based on centimeter, gram and second

as the fundamental units of length, mass and
time.
 MKS system of units

• This system was also introduced in France.

• It is also known as French system of units.

• It is based on meter, kilogram and second as

the fundamental units of length, mass and
time.
 FPS system of units

• This system was introduced in Britain.

• It is also known as British system of units.

• It is based on foot, pound and second as

the fundamental units of length, mass and
time.
 International System of units (SI)

• In 1971, General Conference on Weight and Measures

held its meeting and decided a system of units for
international usage.

• This system is called international system of units and

abbreviated as SI from its French name.

• The SI unit consists of seven fundamental units and

two supplementary units.
 Seven fundamental units
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
 Definition of metre

The metre is the length of the

path travelled by light in a
vacuum during a time interval of
1/29,97,92,458 of a second.
 Definition of kilogram

The kilogram is the mass of prototype

cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy
preserved at the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures, at Sevres,
near Paris.
Prototype cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy
 Definition of second

One second is the time taken by

9,19,26,31,770 oscillations of the
light emitted by a cesium–133 atom.
 Two supplementary units
1. Radian: It is used to measure plane angle

θ=1
radian
 Two supplementary units
2. Steradian: It is used to measure solid angle

Ω =1
steradian
 Rules for writing SI units

1
Full name of unit always starts with
small letter even if named after a
person.
• newton • Newton
• ampere not • Ampere
• coulomb • Coulomb
 Rules for writing SI units

2
Symbol for unit named after a scientist
should be in capital letter.

• N for newton • A for ampere

• K for kelvin • C for coulomb
 Rules for writing SI units

3
Symbols for all other units are written in
small letters.

• m for meter • kg for kilogram

• s for second • cd for candela
 Rules for writing SI units

4
One space is left between the last digit
of numeral and the symbol of a unit.
• 10 kg • 10kg
• 5N not • 5N
• 15 m • 15m
 Rules for writing SI units

5
The units do not have plural forms.
• 6 metre • 6 metres
• 14 kg • 14 kgs
not
• 20 second • 20 seconds
• 18 kelvin • 18 kelvins
 Rules for writing SI units

6
Full stop should not be used after the
units.
• 7 metre • 7 metre.
• 12 N not • 12 N.
• 25 kg • 25 kg.
 Rules for writing SI units

7
No space is used between the symbols for
units.
• 4 Js • 4Js
• 19 Nm not • 19 N m.
• 25 VA • 25 V A.
 SI prefixes
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024
yotta Y 10−1
deci d

1021
zetta Z 10−2
centi c
18 exa E 10−3
milli m
10

1015
peta P 10−6
micro μ

10
12 tera T 10−9
nano n
giga G −12 pico p
109 10

mega M 10−15
femto f
106
kilo k −18 atto a
103 10

hecto h −21 zepto z

102 10

deka da −24 yocto y

101 10
 Use of SI prefixes
• 3 milliampere = 3 mA = 3 x 10−3 A

• 5 microvolt = 5 μV = 5 x 10−6 V

• 8 nanosecond = 8 ns = 8 x 10−9 s

• 6 picometre = 6 pm = 6 x 10−12 m

• 5 kilometre = 5 km = 5 x 103 m
Some practical units for measuring length

−6 −9
1 micron = 10 m 1 nanometer = 10 m

Bacterias Molecules
Some practical units for measuring length

1 angstrom = 10−10 m 1 fermi = 10−15 m

Atoms Nucleus
 Some practical units for measuring length
• Astronomical unit = It is defined as the mean distance of
the earth from the sun.

• 1 astronomical unit = 1.5 x 1011 m

Distance of planets
 Some practical units for measuring length
• Light year = It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in
one year.

• 1 light year = 9.5 x 1015 m

Distance of stars
 Some practical units for measuring length
• Parsec = It is defined as the distance at which an arc of 1 AU
subtends an angle of 1’’.
• It is the largest practical unit of distance used in astronomy.

• 1 parsec = 3.1 x 1016 m

1 AU 1”
 Some practical units for measuring area
• Acre = It is used to measure large areas in British system of
units.
1 acre = 208’ 8.5” x 208’ 8.5” = 4046.8 m2

• Hectare = It is used to measure large areas in French system

of units.
1 hectare = 100 m x 100 m = 10000 m2

• Barn = It is used to measure very small areas, such as nuclear

cross sections.
1 barn = 10−28m2
 Some practical units for measuring mass
1 metric ton = 1000 kg 1 quintal = 100 kg

Steel bars Grains

Some practical units for measuring mass
1 pound = 0.454 kg 1 slug = 14.59 kg

Newborn babies Crops

 Some practical units for measuring mass

• 1 Chandrasekhar limit = 1.4 x mass of sun = 2.785 x 1030 kg

• It is the biggest practical unit for measuring mass.

Massive black holes

 Some practical units for measuring mass

1
• 1 atomic mass unit = 12 x mass of single C
atom
• 1 atomic mass unit = 1.66 x 10−27 kg
• Itis the smallest practical unit for
measuring mass.
• Itis used to measure mass of single
atoms, proton and neutron.
 Some practical units for measuring time

• 1 Solar day = 24 h

• 1 Sidereal day = 23 h & 56 min

• 1 Solar year = 365 solar day = 366 sidereal day

• 1 Lunar month = 27.3 Solar day

• 1 shake = 10−8 s
 Seven dimensions of the world
Fundamental quantities Dimensions
Length [L]
Mass [M]
[T]
Time [K]
Temperature [A]
Current [N]
Amount of substance [J]
Luminous intensity
 Dimensions of a physical quantity

The powers of fundamental quantities

in a derived quantity are called
dimensions of that quantity.
 Dimensions of a physical quantity
Example
: Mas
Density s
Volu
=
me
Mas
= s
length ×
breath ×
height
[ [M]
[Density M = =
L× L× [ML 3]
−
] L
L ] 3
=
Hence the dimensions of density are 1 in mass and
− 3 in length.
 Uses of Dimension

To check the correctness of equation

To convert units

To derive a formula
To check the correctness of equation
Consider the equation of
displacement,1
∆x = vit 2
+ at
2
By writing the dimensions we
get,
∆x = displacement =
[L] lengt
vit = velocity × hti × time =
time = [L]
me
l
e
ng
t
h
at2 = acceleration × time2
=
time 2 × time 2 =

[L]
The dimensions of each term are same, hence the equation is
dimensionally correct.
 To convert units
Let us convert newton SI unit of force
into dyne CGS unit of force .

The dimesions of force are = [LMT−2]

So, 1 newton = (1 m)(1 kg)(1 s)−2

and, 1 dyne = (1 cm)(1 g)(1 s)

−
−
2
−
1 newton 1 m 1 kg 1 2 100 cm 1000 g 1 2
Thu s1 dyne = 1 cm 1 g 1 = s
1
s,
s 1 cm 1g s
= 100 × 1000 =
105
Therefore,
1 newton = 105 dyne
 To derive a formula
The time period ‘T’ of oscillation of a Thus, L0M0 = K [L1M0T0]a
simple pendulum depends on length ‘l’ [L1M0T−2]b
and acceleration due to gravity ‘g’. T1 =K LbM0T−2
LaM0T0 b
Let us assume that,
L0 M0 = K La+bM0T−2b
T ∝ 𝑙a 𝑔b or T = K 𝑙a 𝑔b 1
aT+ b=
0 & −
K = constant which is dimensionless 1 2b = 1 1
∴ b= &
Dimensions of T = 2 2
−
[L0M0T1] a=
Dimensions of 𝑙 =
[L1M0T0] 𝑙
∴ T=
T =K 𝑙1/2 𝑔−1/2
𝑔
Dimensions of g = K
[L1M0T−2]
 Least count of instruments

The smallest value that can be

measured by the measuring instrument
is called its least count or resolution.
 LC of length measuring instruments
Ruler scale Vernier Calliper

Least count = 1 mm Least count = 0.1 mm

 LC of length measuring instruments
Screw Gauge Spherometer

Least count = 0.01 mm Least count = 0.001 mm

 LC of mass measuring instruments
Weighing scale Electronic balance

Least count = 1 kg Least count = 1 g

 LC of time measuring instruments
Wrist watch Stopwatch

Least count = 1 s Least count = 0.01 s

 Accuracy of measurement
It refers to the closeness of a
measurement to the true value of the
physical quantity.
Example:
• True value of mass = 25.67 kg
• Mass measured by student A = 25.61 kg
• Mass measured by student B = 25.65 kg
• The measurement made by student B is more
 Precision of measurement
It refers to the limit to which a physical
quantity is measured.
Example:
• Time measured by student A = 3.6 s
• Time measured by student B = 3.69 s
• Time measured by student C = 3.695 s
• The measurement made by student C is most
precise.
 Significant figures

The total number of digits

(reliable digits + last uncertain digit)
which are directly obtained
from a particular measurement
are called significant figures.
 Significant figures

Mass = 6.11 g Speed = 67 km/h

3 significant figures 2 significant figures
 Significant figures

Time = 12.76 s Length = 1.8 cm

4 significant figures 2 significant figures
Rules for counting significant figures

1
All non-zero digits are significant.
Number Significant figures
16 2
35.6 3
6438 4
 Rules for counting significant figures

2
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

Number Significant figures

205 3
3008 4
60.005 5
 Rules for counting significant figures

3
Terminal zeros in a number without decimal are
not significant unless specified by a least count.
Number Significant figures
400 1
3050 3
(20 ± 1) 2
s
 Rules for counting significant figures

4
Terminal zeros that are also to the right of a
decimal point in a number are significant.
Number Significant figures
64.00 4
3.60 3
25.060 5
 Rules for counting significant figures
5
If the number is less than 1, all zeroes before the
first non-zero digit are not significant.

Number Significant figures

0.0064 2
0.0850 3
0.0002050 4
 Rules for counting significant figures

6
During conversion of units use powers of 10
to
Number
avoid confusion.
Significant figures
2.700 4
m 4
2.700 x 4
2
10 cm
 Exact numbers
• Exact numbers are either defined numbers or
the result of a count.
• They have infinite of significant figures
number because they are
reliable.
By counting
By definition 45 students
1 dozen = 12 objects 5 apples
1 hour = 60 minute 6 faces of cube
1 inch = 2.54 cm
 Rules for rounding off a measurement

1
If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the
preceding digit is left unchanged.
Number Round off up to 3 digits
64.62 64.6
3.651 3.65
546.3 546
 Rules for rounding off a measurement

2
If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the
preceding digit is raised by one.
Number Round off up to 3 digits
3.479 3.48
93.46 93.5
683.7 684
 Rules for rounding off a measurement

3
If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other
than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by one.

Number Round off up to 3 digits

62.354 62.4
9.6552 9.66
589.51 590
 Rules for rounding off a measurement
4
If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by zero or
nothing, the last remaining digit is increased by 1 if it is
odd, but left as it is if even.
Number Round off up to 3 digits
53.350 53.4
9.455 9.46
782.5 782
 Significant figures in calculations

Addition & subtraction

The final result would round to the same decimal
place as the least precise number.
Example:
• 13.2 + 34.654 + 59.53 = 107.384 = 107.4

• 19 – 1.567 - 14.6 = 2.833 = 3

 Significant figures in calculations

Multiplication & division

The final result would round to the same number
of significant digits as the least accurate number.
Example:
• 1.5 x 3.67 x 2.986 = 16.4379 = 16

• 6.579/4.56 = 1.508 = 1.51

 Errors in measurement

Difference between the actual value of

a quantity and the value obtained by a
measurement is called an error.

Error = actual value – measured

value
 Types of errors

Systematic errors
Gross errors
Random errors
 1. Systematic errors

• These errors are arise due to flaws

in experimental system.

• The system involves observer,

measuring instrument and the environment.

• These errors are eliminated by

detecting the source of the error.
 Types of systematic errors

Personal errors
Instrumental errors
Environmental errors
 a. Personal errors
These errors are arise due to faulty procedures
adopted by the person making measurements.

Parallax error
 b. Instrumental errors
These errors are arise due to faulty construction
of instruments.

Zero error
 c. Environmental errors

These errors are caused by external conditions like

pressure, temperature, magnetic field, wind etc.

Following are the steps that one must follow in order

to eliminate the environmental errors:
a. Try to maintain the temperature and humidity
of the laboratory constant by making some
arrangements.

b. Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or

electric field around the instrument.
Advanced experimental setups
 2. Gross errors
These errors are caused by mistake in using
instruments, recording data and calculating results.
Example:
a. A person may read a pressure gauge indicating
1.01 Pa as 1.10 Pa.

b. By mistake a person make use of an ordinary

electronic scale having poor sensitivity to measure very low
masses.

Careful reading and recording of the data can reduce the

gross errors to a great extent.
 3. Random errors

• These errors are due to unknown causes

and are sometimes termed as chance errors.

• Due to unknown causes, they cannot

be eliminated.

• They can only be reduced and the error can be

estimated by using some statistical operations.
 Error analysis
For example, suppose you measure the oscillation period of
a pendulum with a stopwatch five times.

Trial no ( i ) 1 2 3 4 5

Measured value ( Xi ) 3.9 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.5

 Mean value
The average of all the five readings gives the most probable
value for time period.

1
X =n Xi

X =
3.9 + 3.5 + 3.6 + 3.7 + 3.5 = 18.2
5

5
 Absolute error
The magnitude of the difference between mean value
and each individual value is called absolute error.

∆Xi = X −
The absolute error inXeach individual reading:
i
Xi 3.9 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.5

∆Xi 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1

 Mean absolute error
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is
called mean absolute error.

1
∆X n ∆ i
X
=
∆X =
0.3 + 0.1 + 0 + 0.1 + 0.1 =
0.6
5

5
 Reporting of result
• The most common way adopted by scientist and engineers
to report a result is:

Result = best estimate ± error

• It represent a range of values and from that we expect

a true value fall within.
• Thus, the period of oscillation is likely to be
within (3.6 ± 0.1) s.
 Relative error
The relative error is defined as the ratio of
the mean absolute error to the mean value.

relative error = ∆X /X

0.1
∆X / X = 3.6= 0.0277

∆X / X = 0.028
 Percentage error
The relative error multiplied by 100 is called as
percentage error.

percentage error = relative error x 100

percentage error = 0.028 x 100

percentage error = 2.8 %
 Least count error
Least count error is the error associated with
the resolution of the instrument.

• The least count error of any

instrument is equal to its
resolution.

• Thus, the length of pen is likely

to be within (4.7 ± 0.1) cm.
 Combination of errors

In different mathematical operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division the errors
are combined according to some rules.

• Let ∆A be absolute error in measurement of A

• Let ∆B be absolute error in measurement of B

• Let ∆X be absolute error in measurement of X

WhenX = A±
B

∆X
=
∆A+∆B
X A±
B
∆X = ∆A+
∆B
WhenX = A× Bor
A/B
∆X ∆A
∆B= +
X B
A
∆A
∆X ∆B + X
A B
=
WhenX =
An
∆X
∆A=
X
An
∆
∆X = A X
A
n
 Estimation

Estimation is a rough calculation

to find an approximate value of
something that is useful for
some purpose.
Estimate the number of flats in Dubai city
Estimate the volume of water stored in a dam
 Order of magnitude

The approximate size of

something expressed in powers
of 10 is called order
of magnitude.
To get an approximate idea of the number, one may
round the coefficient a to 1 if it is less than or
equal to 5 and to 10 if it is greater than 5.
Examples:
• Mass of electron = 9.1 x 10−31 kg

≈ 10 x 10−31 kg ≈ 10−30 kg

• Mass of observable universe = 1.59 x 1053 kg

≈ 1 x 1053 kg
Thank
You