Nuclear Model of

the Atom &

Radioactivity
 What is an atom and how do atoms form ions

• An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical element.

• They contain sub-atomic particles (constituent of atoms) and smaller than atoms
• An atoms consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons in orbit around
the nucleus.
• The electrons within an atom are retained by powerful attractive forces exerted by the positively
charged nucleus, creating a bond between the two opposite charges.
What is an atom and how do atoms form ions

An ion is the resulting electrically

charged atom or molecule

An atom which loses electrons has more positive

charges – it becomes a positive ion (cations)

An atoms which gains electrons has more negative

charges – it becomes a negative ion (anions)
 Scattering of α-particles
Geiger and Marsden confirmed The model of a nuclear atom by observing a beam of
alpha-particles (positively charged particles) travelling towards a sheet of thin gold
metal foil.

1. The vast majority of alpha-particles passed straight through without being

deflected. This is evidence that most of the atom is empty space and the
nucleus is very small.

2. A few a-particles were deflected, some through a large angle, and a very
small proportion bounced back This is evidence that the nucleus is positively
charged because the positively charged alpha particles were strongly repelled.

3. The small number deflected shows that all the mass and positive charge is
concentrated in a small part of the atom — the nucleus.
 Nucleus of an atom electron
neutron
proton

The number of proton is an atom is called the proton number. Nuclide notation 4
He
2

It is represented by Z Atom Helium

Electrons 2
The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called the Protons 2
nucleon number. Neutrons 2
It is represented by A Proton number Z 2
Nucleon number A 4
The number of neutrons= nucleon number A - proton number Z
Particle Relative Relative
charge mass
Nucleon (mass)
number A Nuclide name
Proton +1 1

Electron -1 1
Proton (atomic)
number Z Neutron 0 1/2000
Nuclide notation
nucleus +Z A
 Isotopes
Isotopes of an element are the atoms that have the
same number of protons but different number of
neutrons in the nucleus

An element have more than one isotope

Isotopes, identified by their mass number, exhibit

similar chemical behavior but differ in atomic masses
and physical properties. Not all isotopes are
radioactive; stable ones don’t decay or decay very
slowly.

6C 12
6C 13
6C 14

1 12 13
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits
usually into two parts and releases a huge amount of energy.

 This splitting is typically achieved by bombarding the nucleus

with a neutron, causing it to become unstable and split apart.

 Along with the release of energy, additional neutrons are also

emitted, which can go on to initiate a chain reaction by causing
the fission of other nuclei.

 Nuclear fission is the fundamental process behind the

operation of nuclear power plants and atomic bombs.

1 1
n + 238
U92 Ba + Kr + 20n +
137
56
90
36
0
energy
 Fission reaction

In a nuclear reaction, the total The total relative charge before

number of nucleons before and and after should also be the same
after the reaction is the same

During a nuclear fission process,

The relative charge on the
numerous fission products can be
nucleus is the same as the proton
generated, resulting in a variety of
number Z of the nucleus
potential nuclide equations.

1
n + 238
U92 Ba + 36
139
56
94
Kr + 31 0n +
0
energy
 Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light
atomic nuclei combine to form one heavier
atomic nucleus releasing a huge amount of
energy

1H +1 H
3 3
2
4
H 1+ 0n +
energy
 Energy changes

In the course of nuclear fission, the

rearrangement of nucleons within a The total energy in the nuclear During nuclear fusion, the
nucleus containing a significant number stores of the new nuclei is much nucleons in two nuclei are
of nucleons leads to the formation of two smaller than the energy in the reorganized by the forces within
smaller nuclei. This restructuring process nuclear store of constituent the nucleus, combining them
results in the transfer of energy from the atoms into a nucleus that contains a
large nucleus's nuclear store. greater number of nucleons.
 Radioactivity
Radiation: the emission of energy as EM-Waves; (moving
sub-atomic particles); especially high energy particles which
cause ionization

Ionisation: a process by which an atom or a molecule

acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing
electrons Ionizing radiation, including nuclear radiation,
consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that
have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by
detaching electrons from them

Radioactivity: the rate of emission of the ionizing radiations

or particles caused by the sudden and spontaneous
disintegration of the atomic nuclei

Background radiation: is ionizing nuclear radiation in the

environment when no radioactive source is deliberately
introduced.
 radiation

Non-
ionising
ionising

Alpha,
beta & VIR
gamma
Background
GXU
radiation
 Sources of background radiation

Natural sources Artificial sources

Rocks Medical X-rays

Radon gas in air Building materials

Food and drink Waste products from

nuclear power stations
Cosmic rays
 Measuring ionizing nuclear radiation
Remove all known
radioactive sources and set
Stop the counter after 10
the counter to zero
minutes and record the
number of counts

Repeat your
1 2 3 4 measurement to obtain
an average value

Start the counter and a Divide the number of

stopwatch. counts by 10 to obtain the
number of counts per
minute

The background count rate is measured in counts per minute(counts/min) When the count rate is high, the counts are
measured for a shorter time the average count rate in such a case is measured in counts per second (counts/s). Before
conducting any measurements using radioactive sources, it is essential to determine and record the background radiation
level. By subtracting this background count rate from your measurements, you can obtain the adjusted count rate specifically
attributed to the radioactive source.
Nuclear emission

 Radiation emitted by radioactive nucleus is

random, spontaneous
 not affected by physical conditions such as
temperature, pressure, chemical reactions,
electric and magnetic fields.
 It cannot be controlled

Ionising radiations can be detected by gold-leaf

electroscope, GM-tube and diffusion cloud
chamber
 Alpha
Nature Helium nuclei

Charge ++ve

Pure source Americium (Am-241)

Ionising effect Large

Speed in air 10^7 m/s

Nature of tracks Straight and thick

Relative penetration power Least, stopped by a think sheet of

paper
Deflection in electric field Deflected towards negative side

Deflection in magnetic field Top of the page

 Beta
Nature Electron

Charge -ve

Pure source Strontium (Sr-90)

Ionising effect Small

Speed in air Just less than 3 X 10^8 m/s

Nature of tracks Twisted and thinner

Relative penetration power More, stopped by 5mm of

Aluminium
Deflection in electric field Deflected towards positive

Deflection in magnetic field bottom of the page

 Gamma
Nature EM-waves

Charge No charge

Pure source Cobalt (Co-60)

Ionising effect Hardly (least)

Speed in air 3 X 10^8 m/s

Nature of tracks Thin, short and irregular

Relative penetration power The most, stopped by 2cm think

lead sheet or 50cm concrete
Deflection in electric field Passes straight through it

Deflection in magnetic field Passes straight through it

 Since alpha particles have greater amounts of energy Nuclear Relative Mass
1 than beta particles so they have a better ionizing effect emission charge
Alpha +2 4

There is an electric force between the moving charged

2 particles and the charged electrons in the atoms
Beta -1 1/2000

gamma 0 0
The electric force transfers energy to the electrons
from the kinetic stores of the moving particles. The
3 bigger the force the more the energy can be trasferred
Radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay
Radioactive Isotopes: These are atoms with
unstable nuclei that emit radiation. Examples
include uranium, thorium, and potassium-40

Alpha Decay: This process helps Gamma Emission: After a

Beta Decay: Beta decay
stabilize a nucleus by reducing its nucleus undergoes alpha or beta
decreases the neutron-to-proton
mass number by 4 and atomic decay, it’s often left in an excited
ratio, moving the nucleus toward
number by 2, moving it closer to state. It can transition to a lower
the band of stable
the belt of stability energy state by emitting gamma
rays, making the atom more
stable
 Half-life t1/2
Half-life of a radioactive isotope is the
time taken for half the nuclei of that
isotope in any sample to decay

Activity: the average number of

disintegrations that is decaying atoms
(nuclei) per unit time (per second) of a
sample of its activity
 Uses of radioactivity

● Medicine: Radioactive substances are used in ● Academics and Scientific Research: Universities and
diagnostic procedures, radiation therapy, and scientific institutions use radioactive materials for
medical imaging. For example, radioactive iodine coursework, laboratory demonstrations,
131 is used to treat thyroid cancer experimental research, and health physics
● .Agriculture and Archaeology: Radiation has useful applications
applications in areas such as agriculture, ● Tracers: finding the leakages in the fluid flow
archaeology (carbon dating), space exploration, law
enforcement, geology (including mining), and ● Cancer Treatment: Although radiation can cause
many others. cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it.
Radiation can kill living cells, and some cells, such
● Power Generation: Radioactive materials are used as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible to
in nuclear power plants to generate electricity. radiation than others
 Harmful effects

Damage living cells

01 02 Cause mutation (genes
manipulation)

Cause cancer
03 04 Radiation sickness
 Safety and precautions
Shielding: lead-lined
Increase distance suits, gloves and
Put up the radiation Reduce exposure between the source lead-lined walls and
symbol time and the lining tissue doors

1 2 3 4
 Carbon dating
Carbon dating is a method used to determine the age of
organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14
isotopes. It relies on the fact that carbon-14, a radioactive
isotope of carbon, is present in the atmosphere and absorbed
by living organisms. As an organism dies, it no longer takes
in carbon-14, and the existing carbon-14 begins to decay at a
half-life rate of 5700 years

LIMITATIONS
o It cannot be used on living things such as rocks and metal
o The amount of carbon-14 in samples is very small and
after some time the amount of radioactivity which is
emitted by the sample is too tiny for an accurate count rate
 Thanks!
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