Oracle Database 11g

SQL Fundamentals – Lab 1

Lab Rules

• You MUST attend in your section.

• Please commit to the lab start time.
• Oracle 11g INSTALLATION:
– Refer to “ Installation – Database.ppt” for
database installation

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Structured Query Language
(SQL)
 SQL, PL/SQL, and SQL*PLUS

• SQL: Structured Query Language, What to do -

NOT - How to do.

• PL/SQL: Procedural Language SQL, a complete

language that contains loops, if conditions,
variables, cursors, procedures and functions…
etc.

• SQL Developer: An execution environment to write

SQL and PL/SQL (the program itself).

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Data retrieval command (DRC)
 Basic SELECT Statement

SELECT
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT]
*|{[DISTINCT] column|expression
column|expression [alias],...}
[alias],...}
FROM
FROM table;
table;

In its simplest form, a SELECT statement must

include the following:
• SELECT identifies what columns
• FROM identifies which table

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 Selecting All Columns

SELECT *
FROM departments;

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 Selecting Specific Columns

SELECT department_id, location_id

FROM departments;

In the SELECT clause, specify the columns that you want,

in the order in which you want them to appear in the output.
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 Using Arithmetic Operators

SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300

FROM employees;

• Note that the resultant calculated column SALARY+300 is not a new

column in the EMPLOYEES table; it is for display only. By default, the
name of a new column comes from the calculation “salary+300”
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 Operator Precedence

* / +
-
• Multiplication and division take priority over addition
and subtraction.
• Operators from the same priority are evaluated from
left to right.
• Parentheses are used to enforce prioritized
evaluation and to clarify statements.

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 Operator Precedence

SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100

FROM employees;

SELECT last_name, salary, salary+100*12

FROM employees;

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 Using Parentheses

SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)

FROM employees;

You can override the rules of precedence by using parentheses

to specify the order in which operators are executed.
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 Defining a Null Value

• A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned,

unknown, or inapplicable.
• A null is not the same as zero or a blank space.
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees;

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 Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions

Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to

null.
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;

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 Defining a Column Alias

A column alias:
• Renames a column heading
• Is useful with calculations
• Immediately follows the column name
• The optional AS keyword may be used between the
column name and alias
• Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces
or special characters (such as # or $), or is case
sensitive

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 Using Column Aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm
FROM employees;

SELECT last_name "Name", salary*12 "Annual Salary"

FROM employees;

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 Concatenation Operator

A concatenation operator:
• Concatenates columns or character strings to
other columns
• Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
• Creates a resultant column that is a character
expression

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 Using the Concatenation Operator

SELECT last_name || job_id AS "Employees"

FROM employees;

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 Literal Character Strings

• A literal is a character, a number, or a date

included in the SELECT list.
• Date and character literal values must be enclosed
within single quotation marks.
• Each character string is output once for each
row returned.

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 Using Literal Character Strings

SELECT last_name || ' is a ' || job_id

AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;

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 Duplicate Rows

The default display of queries is all rows, including

duplicate rows.

SELECT
SELECT department_id
department_id
FROM
FROM employees;
employees;

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 Eliminating Duplicate Rows
Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT keyword
in the SELECT clause.
SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees;

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 Eliminating Duplicate Rows

• You can specify multiple columns after the

DISTINCT qualifier. The DISTINCT qualifier affects
all the selected columns, and the result is every
distinct combination of the columns.

• You can not specify columns before the

DISTINCT qualifier.

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Restricting Data
 Limiting the Rows Selected

• Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE clause.

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}

FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];

• The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause. It consists

of three elements:
– Column name
– Comparison operator
– Column name, constant, or list of values

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 Using the WHERE Clause

A WHERE clause contains a condition that must be met.

If the condition is true, the row meeting the condition is returned.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90 ;

= Equal , < Less than , > Greater than , <> Not equal
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 Character Strings and Dates

• Character strings and date values are enclosed

in single quotation marks.
• Character values are case sensitive
• Date values are format sensitive.

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Whalen';

► All character searches are case sensitive.

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 Using Comparison Conditions

SELECT last_name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary <= 3000;

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 Other Comparison Conditions

Operator Meaning

BETWEEN Between two values (inclusive),

...AND...

IN(set) Match any of a list of values

LIKE Match a character pattern

IS NULL Is a null value

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 The BETWEEN Condition

Use the BETWEEN condition to display rows based on

a range of values.
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500;

Lower limit Upper limit

Values specified with the BETWEEN condition are inclusive.

You must specify the lower limit first.
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 The IN Condition

 Use the IN membership condition to test for values in

a list.
 The IN operator can be used with any datatype.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201);

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 The LIKE Condition

• Use the LIKE condition to perform wildcard

searches of valid search string values.
• Search conditions can contain either literal
characters or numbers:
– % denotes zero or many characters.
– _ denotes one character.

SELECT first_name
FROM employees
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%';

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 The LIKE Condition

– The following example displays the last names

and hire dates of all employees who joined
between January 1995 and December 1995:

SELECT last_name, hire_date

FROM employees
WHERE hire_date LIKE '%95';

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 Using the LIKE Condition

• You can combine pattern-matching characters.

SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%';

Escape
SELECT employee_id,
last_name, job_id
FROM employees
WHERE job_id LIKE
'%SA\_%' ESCAPE '\';

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 The NULL Conditions

Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.

SELECT last_name, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL;

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 Logical Conditions

Operator Meaning

AND Returns TRUE if both component

conditions are true
OR Returns TRUE if either component
condition is true

NOT Returns TRUE if the following

condition is false

You can use several conditions in one WHERE clause

using the AND and OR operators.

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 Using the AND Operator

AND requires both conditions to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary >=10000
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

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 Using the OR Operator

OR requires either condition to be true

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

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 Using the NOT Operator

SELECT last_name, job_id

FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP');

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Sorting Data
 The ORDER BY Clause

• The ORDER BY clause is last in SELECT statement.

• The default sort order is ascending.
• You can sort by column name, expressions or aliases.
• Null values are displayed:
– Last for ascending order
– First for descending order

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date

FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date;

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 Sorting in Descending Order

• The sort order can be reversed by using DESC.

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date DESC ;

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 Sorting by Multiple Columns

• The order of ORDER BY clause list is order of sort.

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY department_id, last_name;

• YouSELECT
can order by position, e.g. 2nd column in select clause.
last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY 2;

• You can sort by a column that is not in the SELECT list.

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 General Syntax

SELECT { * | [DISTINCT] column [alias], …}

FROM table
[WHERE condition (s)]
[ORDER BY {column | exp | alias} [ASC|DESC]];

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Thank You