CHAPTER ONE

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY

Introduction to Electricity
To understand about electricity, we need to know something about atoms.
 Everything in the universe is made of atoms..
 When atoms of elements join together to form a compound, the resulting particles are
molecules.
 Surrounding the nucleus of an atom are particles having opposite electric charge from
the protons. These are the electrons.
 Electrons can be made to move from one atom to another. Since all atoms want to be
balanced
 The electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the
protons.
 When those electrons move between the atoms, a current of electricity is created.

Electricity is a flow of electric charge or current through a conductor.

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 Sources of electricity
There are electrons and protons in the atoms of all materials, but to do useful
work, the charges must be separated to produce a potential difference that can
make current flow. Some of the more common methods of providing electrical
effects are listed here.
 Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity.
 Photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical
energy, as in solar cells. Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight
directly to DC electricity.
 Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical
energy into electricity.
 Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating
water through a process called nuclear fission.
 Natural gas, in addition to being burned to heat water for steam .
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 Static electricity
 Static electricity is defined as an electrical charge caused by an
imbalance of electrons on the surface of a material.
 Static electricity can be interpreted as n electrical energy that occurs due
to friction of two objects that have different charges.
 Can occurs in a fairly short time or a moment.

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 Dynamic electricity

 Is electricity that can flow in an electrical circuit and is produced from a source .
 Can be used and supplied in electrical circuit
 Can produce electric charges or currents if flowed in electrical circuit that is connected
an electrical load.
 Release of dynamic charge can be regulated continuously or at certain time.
 Can be large electrical voltage, electrical power, and generate electrical current.

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 Electric field
 Electric fields are created by charges; that is, charges are the source of
electric fields. Charges come in two types, positive (+) and negative (-).
 An electric field occurs wherever a voltage is present.
 The force around the electrical charge particle is called an electrical field
or electric field intensity.
 The electric field drops off rather quickly as the distance is increased.
Mathematically this relation is expressed as

• where q and q are the charge values and r is the distance that
1 2

separates them.
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 Magnetic field
 The area around a magnet within which magnetic force is
exerted, is called a magnetic field.
 The presence and strength of a magnetic field is denoted
by “magnetic flux lines”.
 There is no magnetic charge.
 Magnetic field lines can never have a beginning or an end.(i.e
Magnetic field lines always form closed loops)
 Electrical currents in wires also produce magnetic fields The
magnetic field direction, depends on which the direction of
current flows. (i.e right hand rule)

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 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
Conductors : A conductor is a material having a low resistance
which allows electric current to flow in it. All metals are conductors
and some examples include copper, aluminum, brass, platinum,
silver, gold and carbon.
The most familiar examples are metals.
Insulators: Materials that do not conduct electricity (e.g., glass,
porcelain, plastic, rubber, and so on). And electrons tend to stay in
their own orbits.
Semiconductors : A material that conduct electricity in partial.
Silicon and germanium (plus a few other materials) have half-filled
valence shells and are thus neither good conductors nor good
insulators.
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 Basic quantities
Fundamental quantities are those physical quantities that cannot be expressed in terms other quantities.

Derived quantities are those physical quantities that are derived from the combination of fundamental
quantities.

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Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists, measured in coulombs (C).
 The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatics field
 The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a given point in
an electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second.
charge, in coulombs Q = I*t
Electric current
 The movement of electric charge is called electrical current
 Current can consists of a moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons,
but any charge motion constitutes a current. The unit measured in Ampere (A)
Resistance
 Resistance is a measure of the opposition that a circuit offers to the flow of
electric current. The units of resistance is ohm (Ω)
 Resistance depends on an object’s material composition as well as its shape. For a wire,
resistance increases with length, and decreases with cross-sectional area.
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 Current Direction
The conventional direction of current is from positive terminal of the source
voltage moved around the circuit and the movement of electron is against the
direction of current.

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 Measuring Voltage and Current
 Voltage and current are measured in practice using instruments called voltmeters and
ammeters. While voltmeters and ammeters are available as individual
instruments, they are more commonly combined into a multipurpose instrument called
a multimeter or VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter).
 How to Measure Voltage

To measure voltage, place the voltmeter leads across the component whose
voltage you wish to determine. If the voltmeter reading is positive, the
point where the red lead is connected is positive with respect to the point
where the black lead is connected.

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Fig; How to measure
voltage

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 Measuring current, the current that you wish to measure must pass through
the meter. Consider Figure (a) To measure this current, open the circuit as in
(b) and insert the ammeter. The sign of the reading will be positive if current
enter the A or (+) terminal or negative if it enters the COM.

FIGURE measuring current. 13

 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is measured in mhos( ) or Siemens (S).
 Electric circuit is an interconnection of electric devices, or
physical objects that interact with electric voltages and currents
in a particular manner.
 The devices in a circuit to include a power source (such as a
battery, a wall outlet, or a generator), conductors or wires
through which the electric current can flow, and a load in which
the electric power is being utilized (converted to mechanical or
thermal energy).

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Electric potential :-In electrical terms, a difference in potential
energy is defined as voltage. In general, the amount of energy
required to separate charges depends on the voltage developed
and the amount of charge moved. is the energy required to
move a unit charge through an element, measured in
volts (V).
A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with
time. If the current does not change with time, but remains
constant, we call it a direct current (dc).
E.g battery source.

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 Alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidal with time. A time-
varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of time-
varying current is the sinusoidal current or alternating, Such current is used
in your household appliances.
Power and energy
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric
circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we
need to know how much power an electric device can handle. We all know
from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt bulb.
We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies,
we are paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of
time.

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Power
 It is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an
electrical circuit.
 Power is the rate at which energy is expended.
 It is measured in watts (W).
Energy
 Is the capacity to do work, measured in joules ( J).
 Energy is power dissipated over a length of time.
 One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power, dissipated for
one second of time.
 In electricity, you’ll more often encounter the watt hour or
the kilowatt hour.

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Open Circuit
 When any part of the path is open or broken, the circuit is
incomplete because there is no conducting path.
 The open circuit can be in the connecting wires or in the bulb’s
filament as the load resistance.
 The resistance of an open circuit is infinitely high.
 The result is no current in an open circuit.
Short Circuit
 In this case, the voltage source has a closed path across
its terminals, but the resistance is practically zero.
 The result is too much current in a short circuit .
 The short circuit is a bypass around the load resistance.
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 Passive and Active component
 Passive components: Those devices or components which store or
maintain Energy in the form of Voltage or Current are known as
Passive Components.
 An electronic component respond to the flow of electrical energy.
 Resistor, capacitor and inductor are some examples for passive
components
 Active components: Those devices or components which produce or
control energy in the form of Voltage or Current are called as Active
Components.
 Inject power in to a circuit
 Transistors, vacuum tubes, diodes and integrated circuits are some
examples for active components

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 Purpose of the resistor
Resistors can play any of numerous different roles in electrical and
electronic equipment. Here are a few of the more common ways resistors
are used.
 Voltage division
 Current limiting
 Biasing
 Power dissipation
 Impedance matching
 The two main characteristics of a resistor are its resistance R in ohms and
its power rating in watts (W).
 The R is the resistance value required to provide the desired current or
voltage. Also important is the wattage rating because it specifies the
maximum power the resistor can dissipate without excessive heat.

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Classification of Resistors: From operating conditions point of view,
resistors can be classified in to two.

1. Fixed resistor; A fixed resistor is one for each the value of

resistance is specified or fixed and cannot be varied in general.

Fig. Carbon composition type resistors

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 2. Adjustable/ variable resistors
 An electronic component that is used to vary the amount of
current that flows through a circuit.
 It works by sliding a wiper terminal across a resistive material
typically a thin film or chunk of carbon or a resistive wire made
of nickel chromium or tungsten alloys.
 After being set to the appropriate location, the wiper's position
often remains fixed on the circuit board; however, it can also be
made user adjustable with a screwdriver.

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Fig; variable resistors

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 Inductors
 An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in
its magnetic field. Inductors find numerous applications in
electronic and power systems.
 They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs,
radars, and electric motors. Any conductor of electric current
has inductive properties and maybe regarded as an inductor.
But in order to enhance the inductive effect. a practical
inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many
turns of conducting wire.
Inductance a measure of property of a material to induce magnetic
field.

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Inductors provide inductance
They store energy in a magnetic field
Measured in Henry (H)

Formulas for calculating the inductance of inductors:-

Where N is the number of turns, l is the length, A is the cross-

sectional area, and μ is the permeability of the core .

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An inductor consists of a coil of conducting
wire

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 capacitor
 A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in
its electric field. Besides resistors, capacitors are the most
common electrical components. Capacitors are used
extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and
power systems. A capacitor consists of two conducting
plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric ).

Figure : capacitor with

applied voltage

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 Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor
to the voltage difference between the two plates, measured in
farads (F).
 In addition, capacitors are used to block dc, pass ac, shift
phase, store energy, start motors, and suppress noise
 The capacitor is said to store the electric charge. The amount of
charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the
applied voltage v so that;

,is the amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly

proportional to the applied voltage v so that

,this is the current-voltage relationship for a capacitor

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 Resistivity of the material
As mentioned in the chapter preview, conductors are
materials which permit the flow of charge. However,
conductors do not all behave the same way. Rather, we find
that the resistance of a material is dependent upon several
factors
Type of material
Length of the conductor
Cross-sectional area
Temperature

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The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a given
temperature may be summarized mathematically as follows :

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31
EXAMPLE Most homes use solid copper wire having a diameter of 1.63 mm
to provide electrical distribution to outlets and light sockets. Determine the
resistance of 75 meters of a solid copper wire having the above diameter.
Solution
We will first calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire using the above
equation

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 Color Coding of Resistors
The colored bands provide a quickly recognizable code for determining
the value of resistance, the tolerance (in percentage), and occasionally the
expected reliability of the resistor. The colored bands are always read from
left to right, left being defined as the side of the resistor with the band
nearest to it.
The first two bands represent the first and second digits of the
resistance value.
The third band is called the multiplier band and represents the number of
zeros following the first two digits; it is usually given as a power of ten.
The fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor

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 The fourth band, if there is one, indicates
tolerance. If it’s silver, it means the resistor is
rated at plus or minus 10 percent. If it’s gold, the
resistor is rated at plus or minus 5 percent. If
there is no fourth band, the resistor is rated at
plus or minus 20 percent.
The fifth band, if there is one, indicates the
percentage that the value might change in
1,000 hours of use.
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 A brown band indicates a maximum change of 1
percent of the rated value. A red band indicates 0.1
percent; an orange band indicates 0.01 percent; a
yellow band indicates 0.001 percent.
 If there is no fifth band, it means that the resistor
might deviate by more than 1 percent of the rated
value after 1,000 hours of use.
 A good technician always tests a resistor with an
ohmmeter before installing it.

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Branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or
current source and other passive component.
In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element.
The circuit in Fig. below has five branches, namely, the 10V voltage
source, the 2A current source, and the three resistors

Fig. Nodes, branches, and loops.

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 Node is the point of connection between two or more
branches.
 A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short
circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two
nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. above
has three nodes a, b, and c.
 Loop is any closed path in a circuit.
 A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node
more than once.
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Ohm’s Law
Consider the circuit of Figure below. Using a circuit similar in concept
to this, Ohm determined experimentally that current in a resistive
circuit is directly proportional to its applied voltage and inversely
proportional to its resistance.
 In equation form, Ohm’s law states

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EXAMPLE A 27 ohm resistor is connected to a 12-V battery. What is the
current?
Solution Substituting the resistance and voltage values into Ohm’s law yields

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  Ohm’s Law in Graphical Form

The relationship between current and voltage described by Equation

above may be shown graphically as in Figure below.
 The graphs, which are straight lines, show clearly that the relationship
between voltage and current is linear, i.e., that current is directly
proportional to voltage.

FIGURE : Graphical representation of Ohm’s law. The red plot is for a 10 ohms resistor
while the green plot is for a 20 ohms resistor.
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44
 Cells and Battery
Batteries operate by converting chemical energy into
electrical energy through electrochemical discharge
reactions.
Batteries are composed of one or more cells, each
containing a positive electrode, negative electrode,
separator, and electrolyte
 A battery converts energy stored in the chemical bonds of
a material into electrical energy via a set of
oxidation/reduction (commonly abbreviated to redox)
reactions. 45
Batteries are used :-
To start engines and auxiliary power units,
To provide emergency backup power for essential avionics
equipment,
To assure no-break power
To provide power for maintenance and preflight checkouts .

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 Cells can be divided into two major classes:
• Primary cells
• Secondary cells.

a) Primary cells
Primary cells are not rechargeable and must be replaced once
the reactants are depleted.
Examples of primary cells include carbon-zinc (dry cell),
alkaline manganese, mercury zinc, silver-zinc and others.

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B) Secondary cells
A secondary cell is any kind of electrolytic cell in which the

electrochemical reaction that releases energy is

reversible.
Examples of secondary cells include:- lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and lithium
batteries.
 Batteries are rated in terms of their nominal voltage and ampere-hour
capacity.
 The nominal voltage of each cell (2.0 V for lead acid and 1.2 V for nickel-
cadmium). 48
The most common voltage rating for aircraft batteries
is 24 V.
• A 24-V lead-acid battery contains 12 cells, while
• a 24-V nickel-cadmium battery contains either 19
or 20 cells (the U.S. military rates 19 cell batteries
at 24 V).

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Fig. Connection of cells to form a battery.
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Type of Batteries
 Aircraft batteries are usually identified by the material used for the
plates.
 The two most common types of battery used are :
1. lead-acid battery
2. NiCd battery.
1.1 Lead-acid batteries
Lead-acid battery has widespread applications on general aviation fixed
and rotary wing aircraft due to the high current available for engine start
and relatively low manufacturing cost (compared with nickel cadmium
batteries). 51
Figure 5.3 Lead-acid cell construction
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 Charging method
 Constant voltage charging at 2.3 to 2.4V per cell is the preferred
method of charging lead-acid aircraft batteries. For a 12-cell
battery, this equates to 27.6 to 28.8 V which generally is
compatible with the voltage available from the aircraft’s 28-V DC
bus.
 Thus, lead-acid aircraft batteries normally can be charged by
direct connection to the DC bus, avoiding the need for a
dedicated battery charger.
 If the voltage regulation on the DC bus is not controlled
sufficiently, however, the battery will be overcharged or
undercharged causing premature failure.
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 Maintenance Requirements
 Routine maintenance of lead-acid aircraft batteries is required to
assure airworthiness and to maximize service life.
 Maintenance intervals are typically 2 to 4 months.
 A capacity test or load test usually is included as part of the
servicing procedure.
 Capacity check intervals can be based either on calendar time
(e.g., every 3 to 6 months after the first year) or operating hours
(e.g., every 100 hours after the first 600 hours).
 Refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions for
specific batteries of interest.

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As the cell is charged, the sulfuric acid ( ) concentration
increases and becomes highest when the cell is fully
charged.
Likewise, when the cell is discharged, the acid
concentration decreases and becomes most dilute.
The acid concentration generally is expressed in terms of
specific gravity, which is weight of the electrolyte
compared to the weight of an equal volume of pure water.

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A hydrometer is an instrument
used to measure the specific
gravity of liquids; that is, the
ratio of the density of the
liquid to the density of water.

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 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
 There are two basic cell types: vented and recombinant.
 Vented cells have a flooded electrolyte, and the hydrogen and
oxygen gases generated during charging are vented from the
cell container.
 Recombinant cells have a starved electrolyte, and the oxygen
generated from the positive electrode during charging diffuses
to the negative electrode where it recombines to form
cadmium hydroxide. Nickel-cadmium aircraft batteries
generally consist of a steel case containing identical,
individual cells connected in series.
 The number of cells depends on the particular application, but
generally 19 or 20 cells are used.
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 The predominant failure modes of nickel-cadmium
cells are summarized as follows:
 Shorts caused by cadmium migration through the separator,
swelling of the positive electrode, degradation of the
separator,
 Water loss and resulting cell dry-out due to leaking seal,
repeated cell reversal, or excessive overcharge
 Loss of negative (cadmium) electrode capacity due to
passivation or active material degradation.
 Loss of positive (nickel) electrode capacity due to swelling
or active material degradation. Manifested by low capacity
that is non restorable.
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Schematic circuit symbols

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 Some of safety precaution
 Always shut off the power to a circuit or device that you will be
working on.
 Test the Circuit (Never assume that the circuit is off! )
 Always use an insulated fiberglass ladder to keep you safe.
 Avoid wet areas when working with or on anything electrical.
 Always think and ask questions before turning on a breaker that
is shut off.
 Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous.
 Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor
stores energy and if it’s not properly discharged when removed
it can easily cause an electric shock.
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The severity of the injury depends on:
 Amount of current flowing through the body.
 Path of the current through the body.
 Length of time the body is in the circuit.
 The voltage of the current.

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