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Correlational Designs
Causal Modeling
Quasi-Experimental Designs
How do quasi-experiments differ from actual
experiments?
Quasi means “seeming like.” Quasi-

experiments superficially resemble
experiments, but lack their required
manipulation of antecedent conditions
and/or random assignment to
conditions.
experiments?
They may study the effects of preexisting

antecedent conditions—life events or
subject characteristics—on behavior.
A quasi-experiment might compare the
incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in
patients who used ibuprofen since age 50
and those who did not.
experiments?
In experiments, researchers randomly

assign subjects to antecedent conditions
that they create.
An experiment might randomly assign
subjects to either daily ibuprofen or aspirin
use, and then measure their incidence of
Alzheimer’s.
When should we use quasi-experiments instead of
experiments?
We should use quasi-experiments when we

cannot or should not manipulate antecedent
conditions.
Example:
Quasi-experiments could study the effect of
spouse abuse on the frequency of child abuse.
Examples:
•Non-equivalent groups: A school implements a new
teaching method in one class but not another. Researchers
compare academic performance between the two classes to
assess the method's effectiveness. However, pre-existing
differences between the classes might influence the results.
•Interrupted time series: A hospital measures patient
readmission rates before and after implementing a new
discharge program. While an increase in readmissions could
indicate a problem with the program, other factors like
seasonal trends might also play a role.
Describe the properties of a correlation.
A Pearson correlation coefficient is used to

calculate simple correlations (between two
variables) and may be expressed as: r (50) =
+.70, p = .001.
Simple correlation- use to determine the strength

and correlation between the two variables
Correlation coefficients have four properties.

linearity, sign, magnitude, and probability.
Interpretation: There is a very high positive
correlation between the water that we intake
to the color of our skin.
Linearity means how the relationship between x

and y can be plotted as a line (linear
relationship) or a curve (curvilinear relationship).
Sign refers to whether the correlation coefficient

is positive or negative.
Magnitude is the strength of the correlation

coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1.
Probability is the likelihood of obtaining a

correlation coefficient of this magnitude due to
chance.
What does a scatterplot show?
Scatterplots are a graphic display of pairs

of data points on the x and y axes.
A scatterplot illustrates the linearity, sign,

magnitude, and probability (indirectly) of a
correlation.
How does range truncation affect correlation
coefficients?
Range truncation is an artificial restriction of the

range of X and Y that can reduce the strength of
a correlation coefficient.
How do outliers affect correlations?
Outliers are extreme scores. They usually affect

correlations by disturbing the trends in the data.
Range truncation removes outliers.
Why should we compute the coefficient of
determination?
The coefficient of determination (r2) estimates

the amount of variability that can be explained by
a predictor variable.
For example,
Chaplin et al. (2000) showed that handshake
firmness accounted for 31% of the variability of
first impression positivity.
Why doesn't correlation prove causation?
Since correlational studies do not create multiple

levels of an independent variable and randomly
assign subjects to conditions, they cannot
establish causal relationships.
There are three additional reasons that

correlations cannot prove causation:
(1) causal direction
(2) bidirectional causation
(3) the third variable problem
Causal direction
Since correlations are symmetrical, A could
cause B just as readily as B could cause A.
Does insomnia cause depression or does
depression cause insomnia?
Bidirectional causation
Two variables—insomnia and depression—
may affect each other.
Third variable problem

A third variable—family conflict—may create the
appearance that insomnia and depression are
related to each other.
When do researchers use multiple correlation (R)?
Researchers use multiple correlation (R) when

they want to know whether there is a relationship
among three or more variables.
We could measure age, television watching, and

vocabulary and find that R = +.61.
Types of Correlation
1. Simple correlation: Under simple correlation problem
there are only two variables are studied.
2. Multiple Correlation: Under Multiple Correlation three

or more than three variables are studied.
3. Partial correlation: analysis recognizes more than two

variables but considers only two variables keeping the
other constant.
Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis
When should we compute a partial correlation?
We should compute a partial correlation when

we want to hold one variable (age) constant to
measure its influence on a correlation between
two other variables (television watching and
vocabulary).
When do researchers use multiple regression?
Researchers use multiple regression to predict

behavior measured by one variable based on
scores on two or more other variables.
We could estimate vocabulary size using age

and television watching as predictor variables.
What is causal modeling?
Causal modeling is the creation and testing

of models that suggest cause-and-effect
relationships between behaviors.
Path analysis and cross-lagged panel

designs are two forms of causal modeling.
Causal Modeling
Explain path analysis.
In path analysis, a researcher creates and tests

models of possible causal sequences using
multiple regression analysis where two or more
variables are used to predict behavior on a third
variable.
Causal Modeling
What is a cross-lagged panel design?
In cross-lagged panel design, a researcher

measures relationships over time and these are
used to suggest a causal path.
Causal Modeling
Summary of Correlation and
Correlation-Based Designs
• Correlation
• Multiple Correlation
• Linear Regression Analysis
• Multiple Regression Analysis
• Factor Analysis
• Path Analysis
• Cross-lagged Analysis
What is an ex post facto design?
Ex post facto means “after the fact.” A

researcher examines the effects of already
existing subject variables (like gender or
personality type), but does not manipulate them.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
What is a nonequivalent groups design?
A nonequivalent groups design compares the

effects of treatments on preexisting groups of
subjects.
A researcher could install fluorescent lighting in
Company A and incandescent lighting in
Company B and then assess productivity.
Causal Modeling
Describe the longitudinal and cross-sectional
approaches.
In longitudinal designs, the same group of

subjects is measured at different points of time
to determine the effect of time on behavior.
In cross-sectional studies, subjects at different

developmental stages (classes) are compared at
the same point in time.
Causal Modeling
What is a pretest/posttest design?
In pretest/posttest designs, a researcher

measures behavior before and after an event.
This is quasi-experimental because there is no
control condition.
For example: Practice GRE test 1  six-week
preparation course  Practice GRE test 2.
Causal Modeling
Which problems reduce its internal validity?
There is no control group which receives a

different level of the IV (no preparation course).
The results may be confounded by practice

effects (also called pretest sensitization) due
to less anxiety during the posttest and learning
caused by review of pretest answers.
Causal Modeling
What is a Solomon 4-group design?
This variation on a pretest/posttest design

includes four conditions:
(1) a group that received the pretest, treatment
and posttest
(2) a nonequivalent control group that
received only the pretest and posttest
Causal Modeling
What is a Solomon 4-group design?
(3) a group that received the treatment and

a posttest
(4) a group that only received the posttest
Causal Modeling

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Correlational Designs

Quasi means “seeming like.” Quasi-

They may study the effects of preexisting

In experiments, researchers randomly

We should use quasi-experiments when we

A Pearson correlation coefficient is used to

Simple correlation- use to determine the strength

Correlation coefficients have four properties.

Linearity means how the relationship between x

Sign refers to whether the correlation coefficient

Magnitude is the strength of the correlation

Probability is the likelihood of obtaining a

Scatterplots are a graphic display of pairs

A scatterplot illustrates the linearity, sign,

Range truncation is an artificial restriction of the

Outliers are extreme scores. They usually affect

The coefficient of determination (r2) estimates

Since correlational studies do not create multiple

There are three additional reasons that

Third variable problem

Researchers use multiple correlation (R) when

We could measure age, television watching, and

2. Multiple Correlation: Under Multiple Correlation three

3. Partial correlation: analysis recognizes more than two

We should compute a partial correlation when

Researchers use multiple regression to predict

We could estimate vocabulary size using age

Causal modeling is the creation and testing

Path analysis and cross-lagged panel

In path analysis, a researcher creates and tests

In cross-lagged panel design, a researcher

Ex post facto means “after the fact.” A

A nonequivalent groups design compares the

In longitudinal designs, the same group of

In cross-sectional studies, subjects at different

In pretest/posttest designs, a researcher

There is no control group which receives a

The results may be confounded by practice

This variation on a pretest/posttest design

(3) a group that received the treatment and

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