Review Notes on

Police Photography
 Definition of Terms
• Forensic – is derived from the word
forum- which means place for legal
debate.
• Lens – a medium or system which
converges or diverges light passing thru it
to form images.
• Film – a cellulose tape embedded with
sensitized solution capable of recording
images thru light.
 Definition of Terms
• Mug-shot – is the process of taking
photographs of the suspect/s in full length,
half body, right and left side views, and
two quarter views. To unidentified
cadavers, include marks on the victim’s
body especially tattoo/scar for
identification.
• Mirage- an optical illusion of a sheet of
water appearing in the desert or on a hot
road, caused by light being distorted by
alternate layers of hot and cool air
 Definition of Terms
• Optics- is the study of light. It is
concerned with the nature of light and the
way it behaves in optical instruments.
• PARALLAX PROBLEM- the image seen
by the lens of a compact camera is not
exactly the same as the image that
appears in the view finder.
• Focus: the means by which the object
distance is estimated or calculated to form
sharp images.
 Definition of Terms
• Focusing-is the process of changing the
distance between the centers of the lens to
the focal plane.
• Tripod is a portable three-legged frame, used
as a platform for supporting the weight and
maintaining the stability of some other object.
• Aperture. The lens opening formed by the iris
diaphragm inside the lens. The size is
variable and is adjusted by the aperture
control.
 Definition of Terms
• Flash. 1. A short burst of light emitted by a
flashbulb or electronic flash unit at the same
time the film is exposed. 2. The equipment
used to produce this light.
• Sharp. Describes an image or part of an
image that shows crisp, precise texture and
detail. The opposite of blurred or soft.
• Synchronize. To cause a flash unit to fire
while the camera shutter is open.
• Stop down. To decrease the size of the lens
aperture. The opposite of open up.
WHAT IS PHOTOGRAPHY?

PHOTOGRAPHY - The process or art of producing images of

objects on sensitized surfaces by the chemical action of light. The
word "photography" derives from the Greek and means, literally,
“light writing.”

"Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos ("light")

and graphein ("to draw") The word was first used by the scientist
Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a method of recording
images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a sensitive
material.
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY:
Police Photography is the study of the general practices,
methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical
things, and other circumstances that can be used as criminal
evidences or for law enforcement purposes.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY:
Forensic photography is that field covering the legal
application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal
investigation. It is that branch of forensic science dealing with the:

• study of the fundamental but realistic principles/concepts of

photography;

• application of photography in law enforcement; and

• Preparation of photographic evidence needed by prosecutors

and courts of law.
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1.INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY Infrared photography is the

recording of images formed by infrared radiation. Because infrared
radiation is invisible, some special techniques may be needed.
•These uses special films that are sensitive to infrared radiation.

•Have a longer wavelength than visible light.

•They can penetrate haze that scatters the waves of visible light.

•For this reason, infrared photographs often much clearer than

ordinary photographs.

•Infrared photography can be used during night time or in complete

darkness.
Infra-red Photography
The hidden image on the painting
of Pablo Picasso called
“The Blue Room”
The painting as seen by the naked
eye.
Another image appears when the painting
was placed under infra red light.
 This image
lies beneath
the BLUE
ROOM
Painting
when placed
under infra
red light.
Improved infrared imagery allowed them to
discover a painting of a man wearing a
jacket and bow tie, resting his bearded
face on his hand with three rings on his
fingers.
Uses of Infrared In Law Enforcement

1. Questioned documents. Even crossed-out words or

writings on a charred piece of paper can be read if
photographs of them are taken with infrared rays.

2. Aerial photography.
a. Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the
terrain.
b. Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter) growth is
differentiated.

3. Surveillance photography.

4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and

irregularities in cloth.

5. Detection of certain types of secret writings.

6. It can differentiate inks, dyes, and pigments that appears
visually the same;

7. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed differently

can be identified by infrared;

8. It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes;

9. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including blood

stains that are not visible to the eye; and,

10. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even when

the fabric is dark in color or bloodstained, may be made visible
by infrared.
 SPECIAL USES OF
PHOTOGRAPHY
Other uses of infrared:
a. Used in medicine to inspect damage to veins and healing
beneath scars.
b. mistakes in the weaving of textiles show up in infrared
photography.

2. ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY

Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while others will reflect these
radiations. Some have partial reflection. These effects can be
recorded photographically using ultraviolet radiation. Black-and-
white films are sensitive to most wavelengths of ultraviolet. By
using a filter that absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, it
is possible to make a photographic exposure with just ultraviolet.
Uses of Ultraviolet in Law Enforcement

a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and

infrared light techniques fail (questioned documents, etc.).

b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with fluorescent

powder or ninhydrin).
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often
glow when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
d. Photographing bruises not seen by naked eye
e. Photographing “invisible ink” otherwise known as the security ink
eg. The caligraphy pen on the DaVinci Code Movie
Use of Reflective Ultraviolet Photography
to Photo-Document Bruising on Children skin
Reflective UV photography will show bruises or bite marks that
are no longer visible.
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

3. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – It combines a camera with

microscope. Pictures can then be taken of things too small to be
seen with naked eye. A photograph taken through a microscope
is called photomicrograph.

Photomicrography is the practice of photographing very small

objects in order that they may be seen in comfort. (One should not
confuse this with micro-photography, which is the opposite.)
The practice dates from the earliest days of photography. The first
known example is that of Fox Talbot who, using a solar
microscope, had photographed an insect's wing, magnified some
15 times. John Benjamin Dancer also produced work in this field.
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

4. MACROPHOTOGRAPHY - Photography of a subject where the

image is recorded in the same or larger than actual size.

It is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small

object without the use of a microscope, by using a short focus lens
or macro lens/close-up lens and a long bellow extension.

5. X-RAY photography – is widely use in medicine, industry, and

science. It is quite different from ordinary photography. X rays are
invisible electromagnetic waves. They behave much like visible
light. But they can pass through things such as wood, cardboard,
and flesh, which light cannot penetrate.
 SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

6. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHY – A.K.A. Micro-filming

This is photography made on a vastly reduced scale, to be
observed using a microscope or projected using a "magic lantern."

•George Shadbolt is credited with being the inventor of micro-

photography,

•The first known example of micro-photography was by John

Benjamin Dancer, in 1839, when he produced photographs 15mm
in diameter.
The term should not be confused with
photo-micrography which is the micro-
photographic process taken to mean a
substantial reduction of the "real thing"
either for archival, portability or,
clandestine purposes.
Micro-photography is the production of
photographs in which the image of an
objects is reproduced much smaller than it
actually is. It is just the opposite of
photomacrography.
 Questions

Select the letter

that represents
the answer of
choice and
explain why.
1. The wavelength of electromagnetic energy in
reference to visible light is
a. 001 – 100 c. 300 – 400
b. 400 – 700 d. 700 – 1000
2. Literally, photograph is defined as drawing with
what particular element?
a. Light c. Film
b. Camera d. Developer
3. Refers to the process of taking pictures with the use
of microscope
a. Microphotography c. Photomicrography
b. Macrophotography d. Photomacrography
4. Forensic photography is that branch of forensic
science dealing with the following other than:
a. study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles/concepts
of photography
b. application of photography in law enforcement
c. preparation of photographic evidence needed by prosecutors
and courts of law.
d. Basic operation of a basic camera for legal purposes

5. The word "photography" was derived from the

Greek and means, literally,
a. light writing d. both a and c
b. draw light e. picture writing
c. writing light
 PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPONENTS:

1. A subject
2. A light source
3. A camera
4. Photographic film
5. Chemicals for processing film
6. A printing device
7. Photographic paper.
8. Chemicals for processing paper

I. SUBJECT

The subject can be anything. If it can be seen, it can be

photographed. Just as there must be light to form an image,
there must be a subject from which to form the image.
 II. CAMERA

The camera is essentially a light tight box with an optical

system at one end and an image support at the other.

Additions to the basic camera have been made to improve

focusing the image, viewing, controlling the amount and
duration of light entering the box, film changing or rolling and
range and exposure calculators. While these improvements
are valuable, they are not absolutely essential to the
photographic process. A picture can be made with a coffee can
if it has a pinhole atone end and a support for film at the other.
 A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually
photographs), either singly or in sequence, with or without sound
recording, such as with video cameras.

A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a

photo camera to distinguish it from a video camera. The name is
derived from camera obscura, Latin for "dark chamber", an
early mechanism for projecting images in which an entire room
functioned much as the internal workings of a modern
photographic camera, except there was no way at this time to
record the image short of manually tracing it. Cameras may work
with the visual spectrum or other portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Video or Movie Camera vs. Still or Photo camera

Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as

movie cameras or as ciné cameras in Europe; those designed for
single images are still cameras. However these categories
overlap, as still cameras are often used to capture moving images
in special effects work and modern digital cameras are often able
to trivially switch between still and motion recording modes. A
video camera is a category of movie camera which captures
images electronically (either using analogue or digital technology).
CAMERA OBSCURA – THE ORIGIN OF CAMERA

CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists

(centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an
otherwise-darkened room so that it could be more-easily
copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole camera, a small
hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to enter the
room (the “camera”), and the scene outside became
transmitted inside, and was shown inverted on the rear wall
or sometimes on a screen. The camera obscura is the origin
of the modern camera.
A camera obscura box used for drawing images
CAMERA LUCIDA

The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr. William Wollaston,

was an aid to drawing. It was a reflecting prism which enabled
artists to draw outlines in correct perspective. No darkroom was
needed. The paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and the artist
would look through a lens containing the prism, so that he could
see both the paper and a faint image of the subject to be drawn. He
would then fill in the image. However, as anyone who has tried
using these will know only too well, that too required artistic skills,
as Fox Talbot also discovered.
CAMERA TYPES

1. Box Camera

For more than several decades the box camera (viewfinder) was
the instrument of choice for the casual amateur photographer.
Inexpensive and simple, it was, nevertheless, capable of excellent
results under many conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted
with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and
a single-speed leaf shutter.
 The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole
camera, a camera in its simplest form. The classic box camera is
shaped more or less like a box, hence the name. A box camera
has a simple optical system, often only in the form of a simple
meniscus lens. It usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as
well as control of aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it
suitable for daylight photography only. In the 1950s, box cameras
with photographic flash were introduced, allowing indoor photos.
2. Pinhole Camera

A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens. An

extremely small hole takes its place, which should be in very thin
material. An image's light from a scene passes through this single
point, and because there is no lens, the image will be clear at all
distances from the pinhole. The smaller the hole, the sharper the
image, but the more exposure will be required. Also, in order to
produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the pinhole, or
aperture, size to the distance between it and the screen should be
1/100 or less. The shutter of a pinhole camera is usually manually
operated because of the lengthy times, and consists of a flap of
some light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole.
Typical exposure times range from 5 seconds to hours and
sometimes days.
Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass
through a small hole to form an image.
3. Folding-Roll Film Camera

The Folding-Roll Film Camera Second in popularity only to the

box camera, the folding camera was manufactured in a variety of
formats. Basically, though, it was a box camera whose lens was
incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back and
forth on a rail, allowing the lens to change focuss. Lenses and
shutters were often one-piece units. Many were fitted with coupled
rangefinders.

The most significant advantage they have over the box camera,
however, was their compact design when folded, which made
them easier to pack and transport.
4. Range Finder Camera -A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with
a rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the
photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are
in sharp focus.

This camera does not use a lens to view the subject but
instead relies on a separate viewing system in the camera for
aiming and for focus. The range finder camera allows for accurate
focus, however, by using two views of the same subject to adjust
focus. One is usually only a portion of the viewer area and is
usually slightly yellowish in color. The photographer adjusts the
focus ring on the lens and as they do the two images move. When
both on directly on top of each other they blend together and
almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus.
A Foca camera of 1947 at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris. 1957-1960 Kodak Retina IIIC
 Leica M7
rangefinder
Nikon SP and
S3 cameras
5. REFLEX CAMERA - A camera that has a mirror directly in the
path of light traveling through the lens that reflects the scene to
a viewing screen.

Two Kinds:

a. Twin-lens Reflex Camera

b. Single-Lens Reflex Camera
A. TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR) A camera having two
separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing
and focusing; the other for exposing the film. The lenses are
mechanically-coupled so that both are focused at the same
time.

Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras A medium-format camera--

one that uses film larger than 35mm--the twin-lens reflex was
immensely popular after World War II. It is fitted with two lenses of
identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The lower, or
taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image
produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90
degrees by a mirror, and brought to focus on a horizontal ground-
glass focusing screen. The light paths to the film plane and the
focusing screen are equal, so that if the photographer brings the
scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the
film plane will be equally sharp.
Yashica LM Twin Lens Reflex Camera
B. SINGLE LENS REFLEX - (SLR) A camera with one lens only
for both viewing and picture-taking. The image is reflected onto a
viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the camera. The mirror
flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light
to strike the film.

Single-Lens Reflex Cameras One of the most popular designs

available today, the single-lens reflex (SLR) both views and
photographs through one lens. Light passing through the lens is
reflected by a mirror and brought to focus on a ground glass. The
mirror causes a reversal of the image seen on the ground glass,
but the addition of a pentaprism mounted over the ground glass
allows the camera to be used at eye level, with the image seen
upright and in proper left/right orientation. An instant before the
exposure is made, the mirror swings upward, and the shutter is
activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next exposure,
advances the film, and returns the mirror to focusing position.
 During an exposure the
viewfinder is blocked

A 35mm SLR Canon FT QL (1966)

Cross-section view of SLR
system:
1 - Front-mount Lens (4
element Tessar design)
2 - Reflex Mirror at 45
degree angle
3 - Focal Plane Shutter
4 - 35mm Film or Sensor
5 - Focusing Screen
6 - Condenser Lens
7 - Optical Glass
Pentaprism (or Pentamirror)
8 - Eyepiece (can have
diopter correction ability)
A cross-section (or 'side-
view') of the optical
5. VIEW CAMERA - A large format camera - a term that
applies to cameras that produce an individual image size of
5" X 4" or larger. It is most often found in a studio, and is
sometimes even called a "studio camera," although the view
camera can be transported and set up in the field.

View Cameras and Technical Cameras Cameras in this

category are used almost exclusively by professional
photographers. The most common film formats are 4 x 5 or 8 x 10
inches, the latter often used in the very large cameras found in
portrait studios. Film for these cameras is loaded in the darkroom
into two-sided holders, which are inserted at the back of the
camera. Both the camera's back and front can be tilted in various
positions, to permit the photographer to make certain types of
corrections in the image. By raising the lens in relation to the film
plane, when photographing a tall building, for example, the
tendency for parallel lines to look as if they converge is
eliminated.
The VIEW CAMERA is the largest of the basic camera types.
6. VIEWFINDER CAMERA - Camera with a viewfinder that is
separate from the lens used in taking the picture. A simple point-
and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a viewfinder
camera, but not all viewfinder cameras are simple.

The VIEWFINDER CAMERA is the most popular type of camera.

7. SINGLE-USE CAMERA - Camera that is used only once. It is
disposed of after the film is removed for processing.
8. INSTANT CAMERA

An instant camera is a type of camera with self-developing film.

The most famous are those made by the Polaroid Corporation.
Polaroid no longer manufactures such cameras. The invention of
modern instant cameras is generally credited to American scientist
Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera,
the Land Camera, in 1947, 10 years after founding the Polaroid
Corporation.
Instant Cameras An instant camera will produce a finished print
in from 20 seconds to about 4 minutes. The film, after exposure, is
passed between two stainless steel rollers inside the camera.
These rupture a chemical pod on the film and spread developing
agent evenly over the film's surface. In the original Polaroid
system it was necessary for the user to peel the finished print from
the base material. An electronic circuit in the camera measures
the time required for the sound to be reflected back from the
object photographed. This time measurement is converted into a
measurement of distance, and an electrical mechanism coupled to
the focusing circuit sets the lens for the proper exposure.
The Polaroid SX-70 Model 2
The Polaroid Land Camera
model J66 Polaroid Square Shooter 2
9. COMPACT CAMERA/Instamatic Camera - Commonly refers
to a point-and-shoot camera.

Point and Shoot Cameras are a viewfinder type camera with

added focus abilities that make it an ideal camera for vacation
and travel snapshots.

Most of them use autofocus or focus free lenses for focusing

and automatic systems for exposure as well. These cameras will
often have an infrared focus system in them that bounces infra
red light out of the camera like radar and determines the
distance to the subject. Point and shoot cameras usually have a
fairly wide angle lens and require you to get close to the subject
to make a dominant photograph.
A Casio point & shoot camera
10. MINIATURE CAMERA – This group consist of a large variety
of makes and models taking very small pictures. The miniature
cameras are small, compact ones, with size measuring as small
as 3 x 1 5/8 x 1 ½ inches and a weight as low as 3.3 ounces.

Generally speaking, the term “miniature” includes cameras using

films in size from 8-mm, 9.5-mm, 16-mm to 35-mm film
cartridges.
11. DISC CAMERAS

Since its introduction in the 1880s, flexible film has usually

been rolled onto a spool or loaded into a cassette. In 1980 the
Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new format for mass-
market cameras. Fifteen images, each 5/16 x 3/8 inches, can be
photographed on a piece of circular film about 2 1/2 inches in
diameter, which is housed in a thin, light-tight film disc. Disc
cameras are exceptionally compact, and most are fitted with an
electronic flash and a motor that advances the disc after each
exposure.
BASIC PARTS OF CAMERA

EVERY camera has these basic parts:

A. This first and main part is called the body.

B. The second part is the shutter which might be located in the

lens (leaf shutter) or it might be located right in front of the film
(focal plane shutter).

C. The lens lets in light. It draws the light into the camera and
focuses it on the film plane. The larger the lens the more light. The
lens also effects how large the image appears based on the
focal length of the lens.
D. The aperture is located in the lens and is a set of leaf like
piece of metal that can change the size of the hole that lets in
light. We consider the lens to be part of the shutter as we do not
actually need a lens to focus an image if we have a small enough
hole to let in the light.

E. Finally, we have the third part is film holder inside the

camera. This must have some attachment that allows for the film
to be moved which can either be a lever or a motor.
1. Photographers who make portraits, pictures of
products for advertising, or other types of pictures
that call for precise control of the image uses what
type of camera?
a. Single-lens reflex c. View Camera
b. Rangefinder Camera d. Instant-photo camera
2. This camera produces a fully developed print shortly
after the picture is snapped so it is ideal for instant
photography. This type of camera is known as –
a. Press Camera c. Polaroid still Camera
b. Instant-photo Camera d. Both b and c
3. It is a light tight box, with a means of forming the
image, with a means of holding sensitized material,
and with a means of controlling the amount of light
that reach the film.
a. Camera c. Camera Obscura
b. Photography d. Darkroom

4. This early ancestor of today’s camera is best

described as a dark room with a tiny hole in one wall
which is called –
a. Pinhole c. Camera Obscura
b. Viewfinder Camera d. German Lieca
5. The early ancestor of today’s camera is known
as “Camera Obscura”. Camera is the Latin
word for “chamber” while Obscura means –

a. Shadow c. Darkroom
b. Dark d. Shaded
SHUTTER

SHUTTER - A movable cover for an opening. It open and closes

to control the length of time light strikes the film. In photography,
that opening is the lens - more specifically, the aperture. The
shutter blocks the passage of light traveling through the lens to the
film when it is closed, and allows light to reach the film when it is
open. Shutters are composed of blades, a curtain, a plate or
another movable cover. They control the amount of time that light
is allowed to pass through the opening to reach the film.

Controls how LONG light enters the camera. This is TIMED by the
shutter speed dial, usually on top of the camera. The larger the
number the SHORTER the time. A short time lets in light quickly
which will stop the MOTION an object might have as it travels
across the film while being exposed.
SHUTTER SPEED - Controls the duration of an exposure - the
faster the Shutter speed, the shorter the exposure time.

Shutter Speeds on the common camera

1000 - 500 - 250 - 125 - 60 - 30 - 15 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1 - B

Each speed is a fraction of a second - like 1/1000th of a second or

1/4 of a second. B stands for bulb and holds the shutter open as
long as the shutter release is held down. This used to be attached
to a long hose to a bulb held in the photographer’s hand, thus the
name Bulb.
APERTURE

A circle-shaped opening in a lens (a hole, really) through which

light passes to strike the film. It is usually created by an iris
diaphragm that is adjustable, enabling the aperture to be made
wider or narrower, thereby letting in more or less light. The size of
the aperture is expressed as an '-number, like '/8 or '/11.

The aperture controls how MUCH light enters the camera. This
opening is inside the LENS of the camera and is adjusted by a
ring on the outside of the lens. The larger the opening the less
sharp the final image will be, much like in our original pinhole
camera. The larger the opening the more light that is allowed into
the camera.
The APERTURE is the opening you see in the lens.
Apertures on the common camera

1.4 - 2 - 4 - 5.6 - 8 - 11 - 16 - 22 - 32

Each of these represents a fraction again, thus 2 is 1/2 and 22 is

1/22 representing the basic size of the opening in relation to the
focal length of the lens. An aperture of f2 on a telephoto lets in
the same amount of light as on a 200 mm telephoto, yet the size
of the opening will not be identical.
f-Number and f-stop

f-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’ light-

transmitting ability - i.e. the size of the lens opening. Usually found
on the barrel of a lens, f-numbers indicate the size of the aperture
in relation to the focal length of the lens. A smaller number
indicates a larger lens diameter. ƒ/1.4 signifies that the focal
length of the lens is 1.4 times as great as the diameter. All lenses
set at the same f-number transmit the same amount of light.

ƒ-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-number.

The bottom scale on this lens shows f-NUMBERS from ƒ/16 to
ƒ/1.4.
APERTURE PRIORITY VS. SHUTTER PRIORITY

APERTURE PRIORITY - A function or shooting mode of a semi-

automatic camera that permits the photographer to preset the
aperture and leaves the camera to automatically determine the
correct shutter speed. You select the aperture setting you want
and the camera then automatically calculates the appropriate
corresponding shutter speed for proper exposure. It's like a fully-
automatic camera except you totally control the aperture.

SHUTTER PRIORITY - An exposure mode (in a camera with

automatic exposure control) that permits the photographer to
preset shutter speed while the camera automatically determines
the aperture setting required for proper exposure.
DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS

DEPTH OF FIELD – The zone of acceptable sharpness or the

area or 'zone' of a photograph, from front to back, which is in
focus or the range of distance in a scene that appears to be in
focus and will be reproduced as being acceptably sharp in an
image.

Depth of field is controlled by the lens aperture, and

extends for a distance in front of and behind the point on which
the lens is focused.

DEPTH OF FOCUS - A zone of focus in the camera. If an image

is focused on a ground glass screen in a camera, depth of focus
makes it possible to move the screen slightly backward or forward
and still have the image in acceptable focus.
Little depth of field
Greater depth of field = More sharp detail is visible.
FOCAL LENGTH, FOCAL POINT AND FOCAL PLANE

FOCAL LENGTH - Focal length is the distance between the focal

point of a lens and the film plane when the lens is focused at
infinity. It is used to designate the relative size and angle of view
of a lens, expressed in millimeters (mm).
FOCAL POINT - (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The
optical center of a lens when it is focused on infinity.

FILM PLANE/FOCAL PLANE - The place in a camera where the

film is located in readiness for it to be exposed to light. A film
plane is the area inside any camera where the individual frame of
film or digital sensor is positioned during exposure. It is sometimes
marked on camera body with the 'Φ' symbol where the vertical bar
represents the exact location.
HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE VS. HYPERFOCAL POINT

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE - Technically, it is the distance

between the camera and the hyperfocal point. But, in practice,
Hyperfocal distance is a lens setting technique that allows you to
shoot sharp pictures within a certain distance range without
having to refocus. When the lens is focused on infinity, the
hyperfocal distance is the distance of the nearest object in a
scene that is acceptably sharp.

HYPERFOCAL POINT - When the lens is focused on infinity, the

nearest point to the camera that is considered acceptably sharp is
the Hyperfocal point. By focusing on the hyperfocal point,
everything beyond it to infinity remains in acceptable focus, and
objects halfway between the camera and the hyperfocal point will
also be rendered acceptably sharp.
III. PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING

Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength

that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm). In a scientific
context, the word light is sometimes used to refer to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum. Light is composed of elementary
particles called photons.

The speed of light in a vacuum is exactly 299,792,458 m/s

(about 186,282.397 miles per second). The speed of light
depends upon the medium in which it is traveling, and the speed
will be lower in a transparent medium. Although commonly called
the "velocity of light", technically the word velocity is a vector
quantity, having both magnitude and direction.
IMPORTANT TERMS:

A. Reflected light vs. Transmitted light

If the object is transparent, then the vibrations of the electrons are

passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the
material and reemitted on the opposite side of the object. Such
frequencies of light waves are said to be transmitted.

If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of the electrons are not
passed from atom to atom through the bulk of the material.
Rather the electrons of atoms on the material's surface vibrate
for short periods of time and then reemit the energy as a
reflected light wave. Such frequencies of light are said to be
reflected.

• INCIDENT LIGHT - Light falling on a surface - not the light

reflected from it.
• Reflection – the bouncing of light from matter.
• Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence formed by incoming ray of
light is equal to the angle of reflection formed by the outgoing ray.

• Diffuse reflection vs. Specular reflection

When a ray of light shines on an ordinary surface such as a piece of cloth,
it bounces off that surface in every direction. The one bright ray coming
in becomes many not-so-bright rays going out. This is called Diffused
reflection.
Some surfaces, especially metals, are smooth and shiny, When a bright
ray of light strikes a shiny surface, it bounces off in only one direction. If
the ray strikes the surface perpendicularly (head-on), it bounces straight
back in the opposite direction. This type of reflection is called Specular
reflection, and the reflecting surface is called mirror. (“Specular” is
derived from the Latin word for “mirror”
The Law of Reflection
Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of
light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a flat
mirror, then the behavior of the light as it reflects would follow a
predictable law known as the law of reflection. The diagram
below illustrates the law of reflection.
B. Refraction Vs Diffraction

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in

its speed or it is the change of the direction of light when it
crosses a boundary from one transparent material, such as air, to
another such as glass, unless it is travelling exactly perpendicular
to the boundary.

This is most commonly seen when a wave passes from one

medium to another. Refraction of light is the most commonly seen
example, but any type of wave can refract when it interacts with a
medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium
into another or when water waves move into water of a different
depth.
Refraction
Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the edge of an
object.
Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp edges cast
shadows that are not as sharp. Light seems to bend a little bit
around the edge of the object, producing a fuzzy boundary
between light and darkness.

The intensity pattern formed on a Colors seen in a spider web

screen by diffraction from a square are partially due to diffraction,
aperture according to some analyses.
 Questions
1. When light passes through an object, it is
said to be

a. transmitted d. diffracted
b. refracted e. a & b
c. Absorbed
 2. When incident light strikes a surface, it
will change direction; this change is called –
a.Refraction c. Diffraction
b.Reflection d. Diffusion

3. When light strikes matter, it can bounce

off, be absorbed by, or pass through the
material. The bouncing of light from matter is
called –
a. Refraction c. Diffraction
b. Reflection d. Dispersion
4. Which of the following is the best exposure?

a. 1/1000 f-22 c. ¼ f-4.5

b. 1/250 f-11 d. 1/1 f-16

5. Which of the following shutter speed can

freeze a drop of water?

a. ISO 700 c. 1/1000

b. 1/15 d. 1/250
 Photographic Rays/Types of Radiation
1. Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic

spectrum. Radio waves were discovered by the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1888.
It was first called Hertzian waves.

Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size

(according to the principle of resonance), with wavelengths
ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They
are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television,
mobile phones, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), wireless
networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.
 Photographic Rays/Types of Radiation

2. Infrared radiation/light

Infrared light are light having wavelengths greater than 700

millimicrons. It s wavelength ranges from 700 to 800 millimicrons.
Infrared is not a color or any kind of red. It is an invisible ray
detected by the skin as heat. It is socalled infrared because they
sojourn the red spectrum. Infrared means below the red. This ray
of light although invisible is important in law enforcement
photography because it permits result to be obtained which are
not possible with only visible light present.
 Photographic Rays/Types of Radiation
3. Visible light
The range of the visible light produces different sensation when
they strike the human eye. Colors of different objects are usually
mixtures of light of various wavelength and not a special color.
The wavelength of the visible light is from 400 to 700 millimicrons
which produce white light.

4. Ultra-violet light
The ultra-violet light is divided into the near and far ultra-violet and
ranges from about two hundred (200) to four hundred (400)
millimicrons wavelength. Thus ray is invisible like the infrared. The
position of the ultra-violet region falls between X-ray and visible
wavelength. Since ultra-violet radiation can kill bacteria, it is
sometimes used to sterilize foods and water. Police scientists may
use ultraviolet light to detect bloodstains, forged document, and
faked oil paintings.
 Photographic Rays/Types of Radiation
5. X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist. Wilhelm
Roentgen in 1895)

After UV come X-rays. It is an Electromagnetic radiation

similar to light but of shorter wavelength and capable of
penetrating solids.

X-Ray can fog photographic film. Hard X-rays have

shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are used
for seeing through some things and not others, as well
as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron
stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-
rays, which enable us to study them.
 Photographic Rays/Types of Radiation
6. Gamma rays

After hard X-rays come gamma rays. They are useful to

astronomers in the study of high-energy objects or regions and
find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and
their production from radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma
rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of Compton
scattering.

Gamma rays have frequencies of about one hundred million

trillion cycles per second and can easily pierce through materials
like concrete and steel. Nuclear explosions release gamma rays
that can destroy living cells and cause radiation sickness.
However, they are also used by physicians to kill cancerous or
diseased cells in the body.
 Questions
1. Radio waves were first called as –
a. Radio Hertz c. Frequency Hertz
b. Hertzian waves d. All of the above

2. Crossed-out words or writings on a charred piece

of paper can be detected and read through –
a. Photomicrography c. Infrared photography
b. X-ray photography d. Ultra violet photography
3. Which of the following light rays can easily
pierce through materials like concrete and
steel?
a. X ray c. Gamma Rays
b. Infra-red rays d. Ultraviolet rays

4. Literally, infra-red means –

a. above the red c. below the red
b. over the red d. None of the
above
5.These rays can pass through flesh but are
absorbed by bones and teeth, causing them
to show up on the film. These rays are also
used as security measure in airports to
examine the contents of suitcases and other
packages. This refers to –

a. Gamma rays c. Radiography

b. X Ray d. both b and c
LIGHTING (outdoor lighting)

Lighting is critical in photography. The direction from which the

light comes determines where shadows fall. Sometimes these
shadows completely obscure details in the picture. On the other
hand, shadows may reveal details which would otherwise be
invisible. Here are basic rules that will help you to understand
lighting and judge how each scene should be lit:

1. Back lighting: Light directed at the subject from behind the

subject.

This has little value in crime scene photography. A light directly

behind the subject creates a silhouette. The subject may be
entirely concealed by its own shadow. Furthermore, any light
shining directly into the lens can cause "FLARE". This may
make the whole picture foggy, streaked or spotty in
appearance.
2. Side Lighting:

This may be very good or very bad, depending on the situation.

Side lighting puts shadows on the unlit side of the subject. These
shadows are often essential to bring out the fine texture that is
found in a cloth sample, a footprint or a tool mark. Try to use side
lighting in all such situations.

On the other hand, when you shoot into a subject, the shadows
obscure important interior details. When subjects such as
automobiles, handbags and closets are side lit, even large objects
inside them may not appear on the negative. You usually want to
avoid side lighting in these situations.
PHC Ronald W. Bayles 302.89
Figure 12.—Sidelighting.
3. Front Lighting: the sun is in back of the photographer

This is essentially shadow less. It, therefore, gives the best

representation of most crime scenes. When you do not have a
specific need for shadows in a scene, you will normally be wise to
light it from the front. In daylight, be sure that the sun is behind
you or at least over your shoulder-- Right or Left, it does not
matter.

This over-the-shoulder lighting was probably the first

photographic advice you ever received. It may seem to be a
universal recipe for good photography, but it is not. The case
against over-the-shoulder lighting is that it produces a
flattened effect, doing nothing to bring out the detail or to
provide an impression of depth.
PHC Ronald W. Bayles 302.89
Figure 11.—Frontlighting.
Classification of Natural or Daylight According to its
Intensity

1. Bright sunlight. The subjects will produce a strong

shadow, because the source of light is not covered and the
objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to
direct sunlight and reflected lights coming from the sky
which act as a reflector.

2. Hazy sunlight. The sun is covered by thin clouds and the

shadow appears bluish because of the decrease of light
falling on the subjects in open space.

3. Dull sunlight. The sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No

shadows are cast, due to the uniform illumination of lights all
around the subjects in open space.
 These classifications are modified by the film
manufacturer, like

(a)Open bright sunlight

(b)under shade bright sunlight
(c)hazy sunlight
(d)cloudy bright sunlight
(e)cloudy shade bright sunlight.
IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

FILTER - Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or

rectangles that modify the light passing through them. Filters are
used in photography to change the appearance of a scene by
emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density, generally
so that the scene can be recorded with a more natural look, on a
particular film.

FILTER FACTOR - A number that indicates to what extent you

must increase exposure when you use a particular filter (by
multiplying the unfiltered exposure by the filter factor number).
Filters absorb light. The filter factor allows you to compensate for
this absorption. The amount of exposure compensation has been
predetermined for every filter, and is expressed as a “filter factor”
(sometimes also called an exposure factor, and also referred to as
Exposure Magnification or EM values).
FILTER SIZE, measured in millimeters, is inscribed on the filter
(left) and sometimes on the lens (right).
PURPOSE

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the

characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive
emulsion. As light is transmitted through a filter, at least one of the
following alterations occurs:

•The color of light is modified.

•The amount of light is reduced.
•The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.
 To use photographic filters properly, you must understand
the nature of transmitted light.

White light is composed of three primary colors: red,

green and blue. A filter of a primary color will transmit its
own color and absorb the other two; for example, a red filter
looks red because it transmits red and absorbs green and blue.

Secondary colors are mixtures of primary colors. Yellow,

for example, is a combination of red and green. Because a filter
passes its own color and absorbs others, a yellow filter passes
red and green and absorbs blue.
In selecting a filter in black and white
photography, you can use the color star in figure 11-19 to
determine the effect of the filter on the gray scale of
the negative and the final print.

On the final print, the result will be that a filter will lighten
its own color and the colors adjacent to it and darken its
complement and the colors adjacent to its complement;
for example, a green filter will lighten green (its own
color) and cyan and yellow (adjacent colors). It will darken
magenta (its complement) and blue and red (adjacent
colors of the complement).
Primary/Additive and Secondary/Subtractive Colors of light
FILTER FOR COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Filters for color photography are classified as light balancing,

conversion, and color compensating.

1. Light Balancing Filters

Light balancing filters come in two series (not to be confused

with a series that indicated physical size): the series 81
(yellowish filters) are used to lower the color temperature of
light source, and the series 82 (bluish filters) are used to
raised the color temperature of light from a light source. Both
series are used when a tungsten light source is used with color
film.
2. Conversion Filters

Conversion filters are used in color photography when a

significant adjustment of an exposing light is required to
convert the color quality of the exposing light the color
temperature for which a film is balanced. Conversion filters
generally come in two series. The 80 series of filters are blue in
color and convert tungsten light to color qualities acceptable for
use with daylight film. The 85 series are amber in color
and convert daylight to color qualities acceptable for use with
tungsten film. The correct filter to use for a given situation with a
given film can be determined by reading filter and film data
sheets. If your are in doubt, seek help from your ship or base
imaging facility.
3. Color Compensating Filters

Color compensating (CC) filters are used to adjust the

overall color balance obtained from color film, particularly
slide film. Without the use of color compensating filters,
improper color cast can result. For cameras, CC filters are
normally used to color balance the light from sources,
such as fluorescent, tungsten, and mercury-vapor lights, and
the “bounce” light reflected from colored surfaces. They are
also used to balance lighting effects under unusual
circumstances (such as underwater lighting).
SPECIAL-PURPOSE FILTERS

Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the
following:

1. Neutral Density Filters -reduce the amount of light passing

through a camera lens without changing the reproduction of
colors in the scene. White light and colored light are
transmitted through a ND filter with only the intensity of the
light being affected. These filters can be used with both black-
and-white and color film.
 ND filters are gray in appearance. These falters may be
needed for pictures of a brilliant subject in bright sunlight.
When you have set the fastest shutter speed and the smallest
f/stop and still cannot take the picture without overexposing
the film, you can use a ND filter to further reduce the exposure.

2. Haze Filters

Suspended in the earth’s atmosphere are minute

particles of vapor and dust that cause a veil-like
appearance called haze. This haze is most apparent in distant
scenes. Haze is the result of sunlight being scattered by
minute particles of matter that are present in the air. The
amount of haze can vary due to atmospheric conditions.
A haze filter- absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight. This
includes contrast and correction filters. When contrast and
correction filters are used for haze penetration, they may
be considered special-purpose filters. Although contrast filters
can be used for cutting haze, these filters affect the gray
tone rendering of colored objects.

The recommended contrast and correction filter colors, in the

order of greatest to least effective, for haze penetration are
as follows: l Red l Orange l Yellow l Green

The use of an infrared sensitive black-and-white film with an

infrared filter provides the greatest haze penetration of all.
3. Polarizing Filters

Polarizing filters look like gray neutral density filters. However,

their effect becomes apparent when you look at the blue sky
through a polarizing filter while rotating it. As you rotate the
filter, the sky appears to get darker, then lighter.

POLARIZING FILTER - is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring

that screws onto the lens and an outer ring that can be rotated.
Turning the outer ring reduces or increases the filter’s
effectiveness. The polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or
eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies. It works by
transmitting light that travels in one plane while absorbing light
that travels in the opposite planes.
Polarizing filters are used in black-and-white and color
photography for the following reasons:

1. To reduce or eliminate unwanted reflections (glare) from

nonmetallic surfaces, such as glass and water

2. To effect exposure control (similar to ND filters)

3. To reduce the effects of haze

4. To darken the blue-sky image in both black-and-white and

color photography

5. To increase color saturation in a color photograph without

altering the hues of image colors
There are a number of different polarizing filters. However, there
are only two main types: one type fits over the camera lens, and
the other is designed to be used over a light source. Since they
do not affect color, polarizing filters and screens may be
used for both black-and-white and color photography.
4. Skylight Filter - A skylight filter adds warmth to a
scene recorded on color transparency film by
absorbing ultraviolet radiation. It does this by
reducing the bluish cast prevalent in distant
scenes and in scenes photographed on heavily
overcast days or in open shade. A skylight filter is
light pink in color.
 Questions
1. What color of color contrast filter would be
used to enhance a bloody handprint on a
blue wall?

a. Red c. Green
b. Blue d. Orange
 2. The purpose of photographic filters is to

a. alter the characteristics of light that reaches

the light-sensitive emulsion

b. alter the characteristics of light that reaches the

camera

c. alter the characteristics of light that reaches the

lens

d. reduced the amount of light entering into the

camera
 3. A filter of a primary color will transmit its
own color and absorb the other two; for
example, a red filter will transmit red and
absorb
a. magenta c. blue e. both b and c
b. green d. yellow

4. Secondary colors are mixtures or primary

colors. Yellow, for example, is a combination of
a. cyan and magenta c. blue and red
b. green and red d. cyan and red
 5. Because a filter passes its own color
and absorbs others, a yellow filter passes
red and green and absorbs –

a.blue c. magenta
b.cyan d. yellow
V. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

LENS - A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other

transparent substance) having one or more curved surfaces used
in changing the convergence of light rays. What we commonly call
a photographic lens is more accurately and technically called an
“objective,” an optical device containing a combination of lenses
that receive light rays from an object and form an image on the
focal plane. However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage
of the term “lens” to mean the entire photographic objective itself.

A camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an image

on film.
A camera LENS is actually an objective composed of a number of
lenses.
Classification of lens according to its focal length

Focal lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older

lenses marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are still to be
found. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of
the diagonal, a lens may be classified as:

1. NORMAL LENS - Lens with a focal length approximately equal

to the diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed through a
normal lens appears to have the same perspective as if it was
being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way your eye
sees it. Most 35 mm cameras' normal lenses have a focal
length of approximately 50 mm.

In 35mm photography, lenses with a focal length of 50mm are

called "normal" because they work without reduction or
magnification and create images the way we see the scene with
our naked eyes (same picture angle of 46°).
2. MACRO LENS - has the ability to focus from infinity to
extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in
frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a "Close-up
lens," although a close-up lens is usually a lens attachment for
close-ups and does not generally have the ability to focus on
infinity.

It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length longer
than normal. These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for
images of the same size as the object. They usually feature a flat
field as well, which means that the subject plane is exactly parallel
with the film plane.
A MACROGRAPH shows the subject at actual size or larger.
3. ULTRA-WIDE ANGLE LENS - An extra-wide angle lens.
Generally refers to 35mm camera lenses with focal lengths shorter
than 24 mm.

A 17 mm lens is considered to be an ULTRA-WIDE ANGLE LENS.

4. WIDE-ANGLE LENS - A lens with an angle of view that is wider
than that of a normal lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle
lens has a focal length which is less than the diagonal of the film
format. angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than
normal.

The 24mm lens is a WIDE-ANGLE LENS.

5. TELEPHOTO LENS - or long-focus lens: A lens with a narrow
angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to
magnify images, and exhibiting relatively shallow depth of field.
Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm, 400
mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few.

A distinction is sometimes made between a long-focus lens and a

true telephoto lens: the telephoto lens uses a telephoto group to
be physically shorter than its focal length.

A TELEPHOTO LENS of this super size magnifies the scene like

a telescope.
6. FISHEYE - Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an
angle of view exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and
that renders a scene as highly distorted.

The true fish-eye lens has its image wholly within the film frame.
7. QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS - The Quasi-fish-eye lens produces an
image on the film that covers the entire frame, whereas a True
fish-eye lens has its circular image wholly within the film frame.

The QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS covers the entire film frame, actually

showing less of the image than a true fish-eye lens.
8. VARIABLE FOCUS LENS - A zoom lens - one in which focal
length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens shift their
positions, enabling the lens to change its focal length - in effect,
providing one lens that has many focal lengths.

Typical focal lengths and their 35mm format designations:

< 20mm - Super Wide Angle

24mm - 35mm - Wide Angle

50mm - Normal Lens

80mm - 300mm – Tele

> 300mm - Super Tele

28 mm lens 50 mm lens

70 mm lens 210 mm lens

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION –

(1) Something that prevents light from being brought into sharp
focus, disenabling the formation of a clear image.
(2) Lens flaw - the inability of a lens to reproduce an accurate,
focused, sharp image.

Here are the ten optical defects and what the camera operator
can and cannot do to correct the defect.

1. Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to bring to focus both

vertical and horizontal lines on the same plane. Lines in some
directions are focused less sharply than lines in other directions.
Astigmatism is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis).
It will appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less
dense horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by
stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F number).
Figure 1. Classic example of astigmatism. Left wheel: no
astigmatism. In the presence of astigmatism (middle and right
wheels) one discriminates between the sagittal and tangential foci.
2. Coma - the image of a point source of light cannot be brought
into focus, but has instead a comet shape. Coma causes parallel
oblique rays passing through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as
a point, but as a comet shaped (oval) image. Coma can be
improved by stopping down the lens.

Coma is an aberration which causes rays from an off-axis point

of light in the object plane to create a trailing "comet-like" blur
directed away from the optic axis. A lens with considerable coma
may produce a sharp image in the center of the field, but become
increasingly blurred toward the edges. For a single lens, coma can
be partially corrected by bending the lens. More complete
correction can be achieved by using a combination of lenses
symmetric about a central stop
3. Curvature of Field - The plane of sharpest focus becomes
curved, not flat. It is caused by rays from the outer limits of the
subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial
rays (image comes to focus in curved shape, away from the
CCD). This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.
4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The inability of a lens to
focus all colors (wavelengths) at the same plane on the lens axis
(shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of the CCD, longer
behind). This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.
This is normally only noticeable in long telephoto lenses. It is
reduced by the use of special glass elements, referred to as ED,
ID, LD or Fluorite.
5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - also known as Transverse
chromatic aberration - variation in the magnification at the sides
of a lens (this aberration type used to be termed “lateral color”) or
lateral displacement of color images at the focal plane. Caused by
different sizes of images by produced by different colors even
though the image is all on the same plane. Produces color fringing
of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.
6. Spherical Aberration - variation in focal length of a lens from
center to edge due to its spherical shape - generally all parts of
the image, including its center; Inability of all rays to focus at the
same point. Marginal rays (at the edge) through the lens come to
focus closer to the lens than do paraxial rays (rays parallel to the
axis or center).
7. Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the
edges of the field to bow in or out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed
out barrel distortions. Produced by variations of magnifications
over the field of the lens, particularly at the ends of its range (max
wide angle, max telephoto). It does not effect sharpness, only
shape of the image. It is not improved by stopping down. Very
common in extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.

DISTORTION - Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of

their arrangement in a scene. The two main types of lens
distortion are: (1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near
the edges of the viewframe appear bowed outward from the
center, like a barrel-shape; and (2) Pincushion distortion in which
the same lines bend in towards the center.
Example of Pincushion Example of Barrel Distortion
8. Flare - Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and
color saturation. Flare is caused by very bright subject areas and
produces internal reflections in the lens. Stacking of filters can
increase flare. Lens coatings by the Mfg. keeps flare to a
minimum. The use of a suitable hood (not the stock hood) can
also aid in reducing flare.

FLARE - Light that doesn’t belong in an image, often taking the

shape of the aperture, generally caused by shooting towards the
light source. The source may appear in the image as a reflection
from the interior of the camera or from the lens. Flare often results
in an overall reduction of image contrast.
FLARE can show up as a plain area of unwanted bright light or in
shapes matching the aperture.
9. Ghost Images - Not a true defect but is seen quit often and
sometimes confused as one. Distinct images, usually in the shape
of the diaphragm or a very bright light source included in the
scene. Caused by high intensity light producing rays which
bounce around in the lens and form an image. Often multiple
images appear in a row across the scene, starting at or near the
source. Ghost images can be reduced by the use of a suitable
lens hood.

GHOST IMAGE - In time exposure photography, an object that is

only partially recorded on the film and therefore has a translucent,
ghost-like appearance. Ghosting also occurs when using
electronic flash at a slow shutter speed, and a second image is
captured on the film by ambient light. Some people also refer to
“flare” as a ghost image.
10. Diffraction - Again, not a true defect, but a property of light.
Diffraction is the bending of light rays as they pass a small
opening or past a sharp edge. Common when a very small
diaphragm (F16, F22, etc.) is used. Diffraction causes a point to
be less sharp.
RED EYE

RED EYE - An image in which a subject’s irises are red instead of

black. The red eye effect is caused by light from a flash traveling
through the iris and illuminating the retina at the interior back of
the eye–– which is red in color due to its blood vessels –– and the
camera capturing that redness on film.

Red-eye is the phenomenon where people have glowing red eyes

in photographs. This is caused by the close proximity of the flash
(especially built-in flash) to the camera lens, which causes light
from the subject to be reflected directly back at the camera. When
the flash fires, the light reflects off the blood in the capillaries in
the back of the subject ’s eyes and back into the camera lens.
People with blue eyes are particularly susceptible to the red-eye
phenomenon because they have less pigment to absorb the light.
RED EYE is actually an image of the retina at the inside back of
the eyeball.
RED EYE REDUCTION - A feature of some cameras or flash
units that is meant to reduce the effect of red eye by emitting
multiple bursts of light immediately before the picture is taken. The
intended result is a forced reduction in the size of the subject's iris.

There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-eye in your

pictures. Some cameras provide a red-eye reduction feature that
fires a pre-flash, forcing the irises in your subject ’s eyes to close
before you take the picture. The main problem with this method
is that it often forces subjects to involuntarily close their eyes
before the image is taken, and it doesn’t always completely
eliminate the red-eye effect.
A more effective method is to use an external flash via the camera
’s hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with an extension bracket. An
external flash radically changes the angle of the flash, preventing
the lens from capturing the reflection of the blood in the back of
your subject ’s eyes.

While you can also fix the red-eye effect using Aperture, there is
no way to accurately reproduce the original color of your subject ’s
eyes. Preventing the problem before it occurs is the preferred
solution.
Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction

1. Simple miniscus lens – this lens is usually found in simple or

box camera. It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from
inherent defects of lenses.

2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two achromatic

lens with almost the same focal length. This is corrected from
some kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism.

A rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that yields images where

straight features, such as the walls of buildings, appear with
straight lines, as opposed to being curved. In other words, it is a
lens with little barrel or pincushion distortion.
3. Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat)– a lens designed to
correct astigmatism. A lens which is free from astigmatism and
other types of lens defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and
horizontal lines at the same time.

4. Achromatic Lens or aspherical lens – is a lens that is

designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration.
Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring two wavelengths
(typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.
5. Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a
better color correction and has the ability to produce the best
definition of image in the photographs.

6. Fixed Focus Lens – a lens used in all fixed focus camera.

Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth of field.
 Questions
1. Red-eye can be avoided or minimized
through the following techniques except-
a. by moving the camera away from the lens
optical axis
b. by turning-on the room lights
c. by emitting multiple bursts of light
immediately before the picture is taken
d. by moving the flash away from the lens
optical axis
 2. Red-eye is caused by the light reflecting
from the blood vessels in front of the eye. This
statement is –
a. True c. False
b. Incorrect d. Both b and c

3. The image of a point source of light cannot

be brought into focus, but has instead a comet
shape. The type of lens aberration is called –
a. Astigmatism c. Field Curvature
b. Coma d. Spherical
aberration
 4. Image distortion caused by a lens where the
edge bows outwards like a fisheye or wide-angle
lens’s image is called –
a. Distortion c. Barrel distortion
b. Curvature of field d. None of
these

5. A lens that bends or brings the light ray

together refer to –
a. Negative lens c. Positive lens
b. Diverging lens d. both a and c
VI. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

FILM - A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate

composition made in thin, flexible strips or sheets and coated
with a light-sensitive emulsion for taking photographs.

Structure of a Black and White Film

1. Top Coating – is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin

which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches
and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer – is the light-sensitive portion of a film or
paper that records the image. composed of silver compounds
which are light sensitive, but for photographic purposes, halogens
such as bromide; chloride; and iodide (used in small amounts,
seldom more than 5% with silver bromide in fast film emulsion) is
added to silver halides, a rare compound that forms a latent
image.

To be useful in photography, the silver halides are suspected with

gelatin; a colloid extracted by boiling animal bones, hooves, horns,
and hides. The gelatin used in films generally comes from the ears
and cheek section of calf hides because hides of calves and cows
contain sulfur compounds, which aids in the photochemical
reaction that creates latent images.
3. Film base – commonly made of cellulose
acetate or other materials such as paper,
plastic, or glass which supports the
emulsion layer and is coated with a non-
curl anti-halation backing.

Three plastics that have been widely used as film base:

a. Cellulose nitrate was the first material used.
Discontinued in the 1950s because it was highly
flammable, cellulose nitrate is chemically
unstable if stored in conditions that are too damp
(it can decompose) or too hot (it can self-ignite).
b. Cellulose acetates were developed to
replace nitrate. Cellulose triacetate, called
safety base, is much safer to use and
store than nitrate. Most current KODAK
and EASTMANMotion Picture Films are
coated on a cellulose triacetate base.
c. Polyester base is used for all print films,
most duplicating films, and some specialty
films. Polyester is stronger and wears
better than triacetate. Polyester’s storage
life is up to ten times that of acetate.
Picture Films (usually intermediate and
print films) because of its high strength,
chemical stability, toughness, tear
resistance, flexibility, and dimensional
stability.
4. Anti-halation backing – a black dye applied on
the rear surface of the film, its function is to absorb
light that may penetrate the emulsion layer, thus,
preventing it to reflect back to the emulsion
(halation).

The dye is removed during processing by one of

the chemical in the developer.

Its second function is to control the film from

curling towards the emulsion layer.
Structure of Color film

1. Top layer (blue filter)– is sensitive to blue light only; green and
red light passes through it without exposing the color blind
halides.

2. Yellow filter – known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin

is coated between the top and second layer to absorb any
penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light.
3. Middle layer (green filter) – is orthochromatic, which is
sensitive to blue and green, but not to red. So the red light
passes on to the bottom emulsion layer.

4. Bottom layer (red filter) – is panchromatic, sensitive to

blue (which cannot reach it) and red. It is also somewhat
sensitive to green light but to such a slight degree that it is not
important.

Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers,

each layer responding to one and only one of the additive
color primaries. After exposure, the yellow color of the filter
layer is destroyed during processing of the film.
Kodakcolor used to manufacture color films,
most specially films for motion pictures,
and used couplers to enhance the color of
pictures in 1942.
In each emulsion layer, color couplers are
dispersed in tiny oil droplets around silver
halide crystals. When the developing
agent reaches the sensitized silver grain,
oxidized developer is formed after
donating electrons to the silver halide
The oxidized developer combines with the
coupler molecule to form a colored dye.
During subsequent processing steps, the
silver is removed, leaving only colored
dye-clouds where film grains used to be.
• yellow-dye-forming coupler is located in
the blue-sensitive emulsion layer
• magenta-dye-forming coupler is located in
the green-sensitive layer
• cyan-dye-forming coupler is located in the
red-sensitive layer
 FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO COLOR SENSITIVITY:

All photographic emulsions are sensitive to the colors of blue

violet and ultraviolet. The film’s sensitivity to other colors is
obtained by adding dyes to the emulsion during manufacture.

Non-chromatic or blue filter – sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-

violet colors only. This film may be used when natural rendition is
not important. For example, it is used to copy black and white
originals and to photograph colorless subjects when extreme
contrast is needed.

Orthochromatic – sensitive to blues and greens, but not to

reds. Reds are recorded as dark tones, while greens are light
tones when printed.
Panchromatic – sensitive to all colors and are further subdivided
according to their degree of sensitivity to each color. This film is
most commonly used in investigative photography because it
produces the most natural recording of colors.

Infrared – sensitive to blue and infrared radiation, which is beyond

the human eye’s sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating haze
because of its longer wavelengths. In investigative photography, it
is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents; in the
discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are
hidden under the skin; and in the construction of camera traps.

Others:
e.1. Color negative – for prints, ends in the word “color”
e.2. Color transparency – for slides, ends in the word “chromes”
FILM SPEED

It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is measured

and expressed in a numerical rating called ISO formerly known as
ASA/DIN. This means that the higher the ISO number, the more
sensitive the film is to light, and that pictures can be taken indoors
under dim light conditions.

One film may be rated ISO – 100 and another film ISO – 200. This
means that the 200 film is twice as fast (twice more sensitive to
light) than the 100 film. Hence, would only require half the amount
of light to produce a satisfactory negative. Each time the film
speed is doubled, it is equal to one f/stop in exposure.
For instance, in the example given, if ISO –
100 is exposed at f/8, then ISO – 200
would be exposed at f/11 to produce the
same negative quality.

Any film above ISO – 200 can be considered

high speed and anything less is usually
slow speed and fine-grain.
The suggested uses of the following film under varying conditions
are:

ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color and
sharpness

ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose

ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject

ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions

 DARKROOM TECHNIQUES

“Photographic processing” can be defined simply as a

series of chemical changes that accomplish the following
goals:

• Develop the image

• Stop the action of development at a desired point
• Fix the visible image to make it permanent
• Wash away all traces of chemicals used
• Dry the photographic material
Exposure, Development of Black and White
Film - Overview
A. Unused film in camera
B. Exposure of film to light
(photons)
C. Formation of silver ions (latent
image)
D. Development changes silver ions
to metallic silver
E. Fixing – removes unused silver
halides from the emulsion.
F. Wash – rinsing with clean water.
Removes all by-products of
development process.
PHOTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS

1. Developer

When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver

halides (usually silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the
emulsion change chemically. However, no noticeable
change can be seen until the film is developed.
The developer causes the affected silver halides to change
into metallic silver while having no effect on the unexposed
silver halides. The result is that a subject area reflecting the
most light will affect the most silver halides and will be the
darkest part of the image formed in development. That which
is light in the subject is dark in the processed image and
inversely, that which is dark in the subject is light in the image.
Most all modern developer contain the following ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer – the basic and most important ingredient

in the developing solution is the reducer, Metol-hydroquinon ( M-
Q) is the most versatile and popular of all developers.
Other agents: Amidol, Glycin, paraphynylene diamine and pyro.
The reducer agent reacts with the exposed silver halides and
develop it into metallic silver which forms the visible image.
However, if used alone, this reducing agent will have a very little
effect or no effect on the silver halides since it has low rate of
oxidation. Therefore, it becomes necessary that an accelerator
must be added to the developer.
b. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, Sodium hydroxide
are some of the alkalis used to increase the rate of oxidation of
the reducing agent, softens the gelatin of the film emulsion, and
speeds up solution penetration.

However, a solution containing only a reducer and an

accelerator will oxidize quickly and act too rapidly. Therefore, it
becomes necessary to add a restrainer to the developer to
prevent chemical fog (a veil of silver depositing throughout the
entire emulsion) and rapid deterioration of the solution.

c. Restrainer – the chemical most commonly used as a restrainer

is potassium bromide. Without the restrainer, most developing
solution act too fast and developed unexposed silver halides
near the surface of the emulsion which causes fog, steaks, and
image lacking in contrast.
d. Preservative – all organic developing agents in an alkaline
sate have a strong chemical attraction to oxygen, so,
preservative such as sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfate is
added to prevent excessive oxidation thus prolonging the useful
life of the developing solution and prevents the formation of
colored oxidation products which causes stains.

2. Stop Bath/rinse bath

It has become common practice to rinse film in running

water after development to retard development and to remove
excess chemicals. With prints, it is equally common to use an
acid bath to stop the action of the developer and prolong the life
of the fixer. In either case, the bath is referred to as a stop bath.
Acetic acid diluted with water is the most commonly used
stop bath.
Three (3) General Types of Rinse Bath

a. Water rinse bath - helps retard the action of the developing

agent and remove the excess developer from the film, thus
preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is
suitable and sufficient for most negatives, however, it will dilute
the fixer. So, if used, it should be followed by an acid bath. The
same procedure applies when processing prints.

b. Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is

more effective than a water rinse, as it instantly neutralizes the
action of the developer and stops further development. It also
neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life
of the fixing bath. To prepare an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28%
acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
 c. Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is
impossible to control the temperature of the solutions,
particularly the wash water, or when development is done in
high temperature or under tropical conditions. A typical
hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz. of water; 1 oz
of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium bisulfate ( a
solution containing potassium chrome alum is very unstable
and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use).

3. Fixing Bath
The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the
developed image permanent by removing all the unaffected
silver salt from the emulsion. These silver salts are still
sensitive; and if they are allowed to remain in the emulsion,
light ultimately darkens them and obscure the image, thus,
making the negative useless.
Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called “hypo”

because the conditioners to shorten processing time or to
preserve other solutions. The solutions commonly found in
main ingredient of the fixer formula, sodium thiosulfate, is also
known as hyposulfate.

The purpose of the fixer is to convert the silver halides not

changed to metallic silver in the developer into a soluble form.
These soluble salts diffuse out of the emulsion and into the fixer.

b. Acid or neutralizer. After development, the pores of the

swollen emulsion retains a considerable amount of developer and
if allowed to remain it will continue its action causing uneven
stains in the gelating of the emulsion, rendering the negative unfit
for use. Acetic acid is added to the fixing bath to neutralize the
action of the developer remaining in the emulsion when the film is
immersed in the fixing bath.
c. Preservatives. Sodium sulfite is added to the fixer as a
preservative to prevent oxidation of the developing agents that
are carried over into the fixing bath by the film; prevent
decomposition of the fixing bath; prevents discoloration of the
solution; and aids in the elimination of stains.

d. Hardener. During the development, the emulsions become soft

and swollen, frilling and scratching may occur if processing is
continued without hardening the solution. Potassium alum is
the hardening agent used expanded but firm for the washing
process.

4. Wash.

Running water is not actually required but greatly

simplifies the removal of all the chemicals previously used.
The wash step is necessary if you desire a
permanent image without stains. Wash films and papers
with fresh running water for about five minutes.
5. Wetting Agent.

The wetting agent, usually called Photo-Flo, is a

chemical designed to reduce the surface tension of water,
thus reducing the possibility of water spots forming on film as
it dries. It reduces the overall drying time of your films and
prints — a point to consider especially on “rush jobs.”

6. Drying.

The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative

which is done in two phases. First is removal of the excess water
from the surface. Second is drying, either by evaporation or forced
air.
THE POSITIVE OR PRINT

PRINT - A photographic image printed on paper, generally a

positive image made from a negative. (Also refers to a
photograph of a model that appears in print - in a newspaper or
magazine, for example.)
After the process of producing the negative has been
completed, a positive image is produced from the negative
which is a true representation of the relative brightness of all
parts of the object and is now called print. A print is ordinarily
made on paper that is coated with a light sensitive
emulsion. This emulsion is much the same as the one which
must be used to cover the film.

Basic Layers of Printing Paper

a. Base- Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure

that it will not interfere with the chemical processes to which the
emulsion is subjected. Available either in a single or double
weight paper.
A PRINT is a photograph printed on paper.
 Basic Layers of Printing Paper
b. Baryta layer. A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal
to increase the reflectivity of the paper.
c. Emulsion layer. Contain minute silver halides
suspended with gelatin which needs only to reproduce
the total range of negative.

Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers. Have a slow speed emulsion

containing silver chloride, fine grain and produce deep
blacks, and used for contact printing.
2. Bromide Papers. Have faster emulsion speed than
chloride paper, achieve sensitivity through the use of
bromide halides. Because of the relatively high
sensitivity to light, these emulsions are particularly
suitable for projection printing.
3. Chlorobromide Papers. Contain both silver chloride and silver
bromide halides. Emulsion speed lies between that of chloride
and bromide papers, used for both contact and projection
printing.
4. Variable Contrast Paper. Combines the contrast ranges in one
paper, this versatility is achieved with special chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon
exposure to different colored light.

Printing Paper Grades

Because of the fact that all negatives do not print best on
one kind of paper, and in order to permit printing for special
effects, photographic papers is made in several different grades
of contrast and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak
offers the most and in six degrees of contrast and glossy (F)
surface.
Velox No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negative;
the low contrast in the paper sensitizing counteracts the high
contrast in the negative, to give a new print.

Velox No. 1 – used for high contrast negative.

Velox No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal

negatives.

Velox No. 3 – use for negatives that are a little weak in contrast.

Velox No. 4 – provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very

thin or weak negatives. It is useful in printing silhouettes and
other such pictures in which high contrast is desired.

Velox No. 5 – for negative so flat as to be otherwise unprintable.

Paper Weight

a. Lightweight (LW) – intended for purposes which involve

folding.

b. Single weight (SW) – use for all ordinary photographic

purposes.

c. Double weight (DW) – generally used for large prints because

they stand up better under rough treatment.
PRINTING

In Photography, printing is the term used to describe the

process of making positive images from negatives (and, in
some instances, from film positives). The most familiar example
is the print made on a paper base.

Photographic print is made by passing light through the

negative onto a piece of paper that is coated with a light-
sensitive emulsion very similar to film.
Types of Printing

1. Contact Printing. It is the process of making positive prints

by placing a sheet of printing paper in direct contact with
the negative, emulsion to emulsion.

Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most

economical method of producing photographic prints. For
making proof prints and small volume printing, all you need
for a “contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a light source, and
some sort of padding.
 For making contact proof prints and the occasional
contact print job, a glass and a supporting pad are all that are
necessary. “Contact printers,” consisting of a sheet of glass
hinged to a metal frame and a pad assembly, are generally
known as proof printers. If such a device is not available or is
not large enough for the negatives to be contact printed, a
piece of 1/4-inch plate glass and a soft padding (such as a
rubber typewriter pad) can be used. Quarter-inch plate glass
is heavy enough to keep the negatives and paper flat and
in contact during exposure. The glass must be free of
flaws, scratches, bubbles and dirt.
Contact Print - A print made with the negative in contact (held
tightly against) the photographic paper so that both negative and
print are the same size.

A contact print is produced by exposing a sheet of photographic

printing paper through a negative with the paper emulsion and
the emulsion side of the negative in contact with each other. Light
is directed through the negative that controls the amount of
light transmitted to the paper. The dense areas of the negative
pass less light than do the more clear or less dense areas. The
image densities formed (after development) in the emulsion of
the paper make a positive print that represents the tonal values of
the original subject. Furthermore, since the paper is in direct
contact with the negative, the print produced is exactly the
same image size as the negative.
2. Projection printing. Generally refers to enlarging.

It is the process of making positive prints by projecting the

negative image onto photosensitive paper.

The projected image may be enlarged , the same as the

negative image, or reduced in size. When the print images are
larger than the negative images, the process is called enlarging.

When the print images are smaller than the negative images,
the process is called reducing.

Because projection printing is usually used to make positive

prints with images larger than the negative, projection printers
are usually referred to as enlargers.
Projection printing differs from contact printing because the
negative is separated from the paper and the image is projected
by a lens onto the sensitized material.

•The negative is placed between an enclosed light source and a

lens.

•The lens receives the light that passed through the negative
and projects the image onto the paper.

•Changing the distance between the lens and the paper controls
the size of the image.

•The image is focused on the paper by adjusting the distance

between the negative and the lens.

•It is possible to enlarge or reduce the size of the projected

image by changing and adjusting these distances.
Advantages of Projection Printing

The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is that large

prints can be made, but there are several other important
advantages.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. Cropping (selecting the main area of interest in a

negative) can be done and enlarged to any suitable size.
This gives you the opportunity to eliminate unwanted and
distracting elements from around the point of interest of the
picture.
CROPPING (1) Removal of parts of an image in order to improve
the image’s composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is
smaller than the entire image frame is printed or reproduced. (2)
Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer
moving closer to a subject, thereby eliminating (cropping)
unnecessary surrounding elements from the composition.

CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve its

composition.
2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local
exposure control to bring out more detail in the highlight and
shadow areas.

DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a

photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter.

BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a

darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to make
it darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print.

3. Local fogging with a small external light, such as a

penlight, to darken selected areas. For example, to darken
the background of a portrait to direct viewer attention to the face.
4. Special effects. You can change the appearance of the
image by use of diffusers or patterns between the lens and
paper.

5. Image distortion correction or introduction can be done

by tilting the enlarger easel. An easel is the device used to hold
the paper during exposure.

ENLARGERS

In general, all enlargers are similar in design and

operation. They have an enclosed light source, some method
of providing an even distribution of light over the negative, a
negative carrier, a lens, and a means of adjusting the lens-to-
negative and lens-to-paper distances.
Two types of enlargers:

1. Condenser Enlarger.

It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing

light and the negative. These lenses align and project the light
rays evenly through the negative. Since all features of the
negative are being enlarged, any flaws also will be
enlarged.

2. Diffusion Enlarger The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing

medium (usually a ground glass) between the light source
and the negative to spread the light evenly over the entire
surface of the negative. Light emitted from the lamp, as well
as that reflected from the parabolic reflector, strikes the
diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it in all directions. Thus,
when the light reaches the negative, it is traveling in a
nondirectional pattern.
Condenser enlarger
Diffusion enlarger
Photographic Enlarger
EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat while
exposing it to light from an enlarger. An easel creates a white
border surrounding a print because its "arms" block light from
striking the print paper's edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted
vertically and horizontally in order to create prints of specific
measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and so on.

An EASEL holds paper flat while exposing it to light from an

enlarger.
 Questions
1. A chemical solution that lowers surface
tension and causes film to dry faster and
more evenly, thereby reducing the risk of
water spots on the film is called –

a. Wetting agent c. Stop bath

b. Fixer d. Hypo
2. A photographic film or emulsion that is sensitive
to all visible colors is called –
a. Panchromatic c. Orthochromatic
b. Nonchromatic d. None of these

3. The blurred effect at the edge of a highlight area

of a photograph caused by reflection of light that
passed through the film is called –
a. Blur c. Halation
b. Anti-halation backing d. Haze
4. A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose
acetate composition made in thin, flexible strips
or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive
emulsion for taking photographs is called –

a. Emulsion c. Emulsion side

b. Film d. Photo paper
5. Which of the following layers of a
photographic film refers to a light-sensitive
composition consisting of one or more of the
silver halides suspended in gelatin for coating
a surface of a film?

a. Anti-halation backing c. Emulsion

b. Film Base d. Top coating
 Crime Scene Photography
Purpose of crime scene photography:
1.To record the original scene and areas;
2.To record the initial appearance of
physical evidence;
3.Provide investigators the permanent
record of the scene for future use;
4.Used for court trials and hearings.
Two general classifications of crime scene
photography:
a.Outdoor photography
– Geographical location of the area that
surrounds the crime scene
– Tracing evidence like foot prints, tire marks,
or impressions that can be useful to identify
and associate the suspect to the crime
scene.
– External condition of the crime scene
b. Indoor photography
- Possible points of ingress and egress
- Adjacent area or room where the crime
was committed
- General appearance of the area where the
crime took place
- Tracing evidence like fingerprints, tool
prints, blood stains and others
- Physical evidence present at the scene
- Body of the victim or body of the crime
 Rules to observe in crime scene photography
Rule 1. Do not disturb the crime scene.
This is the cardinal rule in police photography.
Rule 2. Get a complete series of pictures.
• overview
• mid-range
• Close-up
Rule 3. Pay attention to camera angles.
Relationship of size and distance maybe distorted
due to a wrong viewpoint.
• Apply the four corner approach or clockwise principle
Rules to observe in crime scene photography

Rule 4. Record all data.

Each point and negative should have a data
card containing a complete technical history:
• f/stop
• Film
• Shutter speed
• Camera used

The convenient size of a photograph to be

submitted for court presentation is 8R or 8”x10”.
 Photographing a victim
1. Overhead shot or photograph at an elevated angle
2. Photographs of victims at four angles:
a. Heat to foot shot angle
b. Left angle
c. Foot to head shot angle
d. Right angle
3. Close-up photograph of the victim’s face
4. Close-up photographs of the injuries or wounds
5. Miscellaneous photographs
 Photograph of Physical Evidence
• Weapons with and without measurements
• Biological and chemical stains
• Fibers
• Personal Properties
• Bullet holes
• Visible impressions (fingerprints, tool marks)
• Other significant physical evidence
 Elements of a photograph to be
admissible in court
1. Relevance- It explains and assists the
testimony of witnesses. It may also serve as
refresher or make a witness to recall.
2. Material- Depicts that a crime was actually
committed and tells what crime was committed.
It answers the question “what happened?”
3. Competent- It accurately portrays what
happened at the crime scene, showing the
actions of a suspect, the tools and the injuries
sustained by the victim. It answers the
question “how was the crime committed?”
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Rules on electronic evidence
Acting on the memorandum dated June 18,
2001 of the committee on the revision of
rules of court to draft on the E-Commerce
Law (R.A. no. 8792) the Supreme Court,
approved the said resolution.
These shall apply to all cases pending after
effectivity date-August 1, 2001.
 Rule II is on Audio, photographic video and
Ephemeral Evidence.
Section 1. Audio, Video and Similar
Evidence
• audio, photographic and video evidence
of events, acts, or transactions shall be
admissible provided is shall be shown,
presented, or displayed to the court and
shall be identified, explained or
authenticated by the person who made the
recording or by some other person
competent to testify on the accuracy
thereof.
Some guidelines for ensuring
digital photographs
• Formulate a standard operating procedure
(SOP) of department policy or general
order for the use of digital imaging.
• Preserve the original digital images.
• Digital images shall be preserved in their
original file format.
• If images are stored on a computer work
station or server, and several individuals
would have access to the image file, make
the image file “read only” for all except
your evidence and photo-lab staff.
• If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced,
the new image file created should be
saved as new file name. The original file
must not be replaced (overwritten) with a
new file.
Thank you!