Breeding methods

Lecture 5
Breeding methods
• Breeders have developed a range of breeding methods that improve food
production, however there are several factors that influence the efficiency of
these methods
(i) Mode of reproduction
(ii) Reproduction system
(iii) Heritability of the trait to be improved and
(iv) Type of the end product in production
(v) Resources e.g. time, money, human resource
Methods of breeding autogamous crops
• Introduction
• Selection
• Hybridization and selection
• Backcross method
• Multiline varieties
• Pedigree method
• Hybrid method
• Single seed descendant
• Polyploidy breeding
Introduction method
 This involves introduction of new crop from other areas e.g. from other
countries, if the seed adapt well to the new environment can be used
directly as seed.
 The importation can be done by traders, farmers, breeders, international
research
 Introduction may be classified into two categories:
 Primary introduction
 Secondary introduction
Selection method
 The oldest method of breeding and is the basis for all improvement.
 The effectiveness of selection primarily depends upon the degree to which
the phenotypes reflect their genotype.
 Selection may be natural or artificial isolated from a mixed population.
 Natural selection is the rule and has resulted in evolution of several local
varieties.
 After domestication man has knowingly or unknowingly practiced some
selection known as the artificial selection.
 Breeding method entirely depends on artificial selection.
Selection method
• To get successful results by selection there are two pre-requisites
Variation must be present in the population
The variation must be heritable
Selection has two basic characteristics or limitation
• Selection is effective for heritable differences.
• Selection does not create variation, it only utilizes the variation already
present in the population
Types of selection
(1) Mass selection (2) Pureline selection
Mass selection
• Mass selection is a simplest, common and oldest method of spp.
improvement
• Large number of organisms of similar phenotype are selected and their seeds
are harvested and mixed together to constitute the new variety.
• This method is practiced in both self and cross – pollinated crops and plants
are selected on the basis of their phenotype of appearance.
• Therefore, selection is done for easily observable characteristics
Procedures for mass selection
• 1st year: A large number of phenotypically similar plants are selected at the time
of harvest on the basis of their vigor, plant type, disease resistance and other
desirable characteristics.
• The selected plants are harvested and seed mixed together to grow next
generation.
• 2nd year: The composite seed is planted in a preliminary yield trial along with
standard variety as a check. The best performances are retained and others are
discarded.
• 3rd to 6th year: The superior strains are evaluated for their performance in
coordinated yield trails at several locations, first in an initial evaluation trail (IET)
for one year, if found promising promoted to uniform variety trail (UVT) for two
or more years. Only promising one is identified for release as new variety.
• 7th year : Promising strain may be released for cultivation by multiplication and
distribution to the farmer for general cultivation.
Advantages of mass selection
• Since large numbers of plants are selected, the variety developed
through mass selection is more widely adapted than pure lines.
• It is easiest , simplest and quickest method of plant breeding because
there is no controlled pollination, no progeny testing and prolonged
yield trials
• Mass selection retains considerable genetic variability and hence
variety can be improved after few years by another mass selection.
• The breeder can spend more time to another program as it is less
demanding method.
Disadvanteges of mass selection
• The varieties developed by this method show variation and are not
uniform as pure lines hence less preferred by the farmers than pure
lines.
• In the absence of progeny test, it is not possible to determine whether
the selected plats are homozygous for specific characters.
• The varieties developed by mass selection are more difficult to identify
than pure lines in seed certification program.
• It utilizes the variability already present, in the population hence, it
can’t generate new genetic variability.
• It is not useful for improvement in quantitative characters, such as
yield, because phenotypic and environmental effects can’t be separated.
Pure line selection
• Pure line selection refers to as a procedure of isolating pure lines from
mixed population.
• A cultivar developed by pure line selection is more uniform than a cultivar
developed by mass selection because all the plant in the cultivar will have
the same genotype.
• The genetic basis of pure line selection was given by pure line theory
proposed by Johannsen (1903) on the basis of his studies with beans variety
called princess.
• He obtained the seed from the market and observed that the lot consisted of a
mixture of larger as well as smaller size seeds, Thus there was variation in
seed size
• Johannsen selected seeds of different sizes and grow them individually
Pure line selection
• Progeny of larger seeds produced larger seeds and progeny from smaller
seeds produced small seed only
• This clearly showed there is variation in seed size in the commercial lot and
it has a genetic basis.
• He studied 19 lines all together, and concluded that market lot of the beans is
a mixture of pure lines. He concluded that whatever variation observed with
in a line is due to environment only
Characteristics of pure lines
• All plants within a pure line have the same genotype
• Variation within a pure line is due to environmental and non heritable
• Pure lines become genetically variable with time due to natural
hybridization, mutation and mechanical mixtures.
Year 1. The first step is to obtain a variable base
population (e.g., introductions, segregating
populations from crosses, land race) and space
plant it in the first year, select, and harvest
desirable individuals
Year 2. Grow progeny rows of selected plants.
Rogue out any variants. Harvest selected
progenies individually. These are experimental
strains.
Year 3–6. Conduct preliminary yield trials of
the experimental strains including appropriate
check cultivars.
Year 7–10. Conduct advanced yield trials at
multi locations.
Release highest yielding line as new cultivar.
Pure line selection
Advantages
• Make rapid use of valuable genetic difference that are present in existing varieties
that are composed of mixture of homozygous individual
• Extremely uniform in appearance, a variety is easily identified and seed
certification is easy as well.
Disadvantages
• The purity of the cultivar may be altered through admixture, natural crossing with
other cultivars, and mutations. Such off-type plants should be rogued out to
maintain cultivar purity.
• The cultivar has a narrow genetic base and, hence, is susceptible to devastation
from adverse environmental factors because of uniform response.
• A new genotype is not created. Rather, improvement is limited to the isolation of
the most desirable or best genotype from a mixed population.
Disadvantages of pure line selection
• The method promotes genetic erosion because most superior pure lines are
identified and multiplied to the exclusion of other genetic variants.
• Progeny rows takes up more resources (time, space, funds).
Hybridization in self pollinated pants
• Hybridization is the most frequently employed plant breeding technique.
• The aim of hybridization is to bring together desired traits found in different
pure lines into one plant line via cross- pollination.
• The first step is to generate homozygous inbred lines.
• This is normally done by using self-pollinating plants where pollen from
male flowers pollinates female flowers of the same plants.
• Once a pure line is generated, it is outcrossed, i. e. combined with another
inbred line.
• Then the resulting progeny is selected for combination of the desired traits.
Types of hybridization
• A breeding program starts with an initial population that is obtained from
previous programs and existing variable populations (e.g., landraces), or
is created through a planned cross.
• Hybridization may be used to generate a wide variety of populations in
plant breeding, ranging from the very basic two-parent cross to very
complex populations in which hundreds of parents could be involved.
• Single crosses are the most widely used in commercial breeding
programs.
• Complex crosses are important in breeding programs where the goal is
population improvement.
• Hybridization may be used to introgress new alleles from wild relatives
into breeding lines.
 Types of hybridization
• Initial population is critical to the success of the breeding program, it
must be generated with much planning and thoughtfulness.
• Various mating designs and arrangements are used by breeders and
geneticists to generate plant populations.
• These designs require some type of cross to be made.
• Factors that affect the choice of a mating design, include the predominate
type of pollination (self or cross), type of crossing (artificial or natural),
type of pollen dissemination (wind or insect), the presence of male
sterility system, the purpose of the project and the size of the population
required.
• In addition, the breeder should be familiar with how to analyze and
interpret or use the data generated from the mating.
Types of hybridization
• The primary purpose of crossing is to expand genetic variability by
combining genes from the parents involved in the cross to produce
offspring that contain genes they never had before.
• Sometimes, multiple crosses are conducted to generate the variability
in the base population to begin the selection process in the program.
• Based on how the crosses are made and their effects on the genetic
structure of the plants or the population, methods of crossing may be
described as either divergent or convergent.
Divergent
• Genetically divergent parents are crossed for recombination of their
desirable genes.
• To optimize results, parents should be carefully selected to have
maximum number of positive traits and a minimum number of
negative traits with no negative traits in common
• The recombinants that possess both sets of desirable traits will occur
in significant numbers in the F2.
• The F1 contains the maximum number of desirable genes from both
parents. There are several ways to conduct divergent crosses
Types of hybrid
Single cross hybrids.
If two elite lines are available that together possess all desired traits at
adequate levels, (e.g. A × B, B × D, etc.)
Three-way cross
• Sometimes, for combining all desirable traits several cultivars or
elite germplasm are required.
• In this case, multiple crosses may be required in order to have the
opportunity of obtaining recombinants that combine all the desirable
traits. The method of three-way crosses ([Ax B]x C) may be used.
• If a three-way cross product will be the cultivar, it is especially
important that the third parent (C) be adapted to the region of
intended use, since it contributes more genes than each of the A and
B parents.
Double cross.
• A double cross is a cross of two single crosses {[(AxB)] x [(CxD)]}.
• The double cross hybrid is genetically more broad-based than the
single cross hybrid but is more time consuming to make.
• Diallel cross: A diallel cross in which each parent is crossed with
every other parent in the set (complete diallel).
 Convergent crosses
• These are conservative methods of crossing plants.
• The primary goal of convergent crossing is to
incorporate a specific trait into an existing cultivar
without losing any of the existing desirable traits.
• Hence, one parents serve as a donor of specific
genes and is usually involved in the cross only once.
• Subsequent crosses entail crossing the desirable
parent (recurrent parent) repeatedly to the F1 in
order to retrieve all the desirable traits.
• A commonly used convergent cross is the backcross
Development of Hybrid Varieties in Cross Pollinated Crops
The three major steps in producing hybrids :
1. Development of inbred lines to be used as parents;
2. Test cross these lines to identify those that combine well;
3. Exploit the best single crosses as hybrid cultivars.
Development of Inbreds:
• It is an important step in the production of hybrids.
• There are two methods of developing inbred lines i.e.
1. By selfing of heterozygous population 2. By doubling of haploids.
• Various population viz. open pollinated varieties, synthetic varieties or
any other heterozygous population can be used for selfing.
• Superior plants on the basis of vigour, disease resistant and yield are
selected and selfed.
• Progeny of selected plants are grown separately from the selfed seed in
the next season.
• Again selection is made for the superior progeny and selfed.
• This processes is continue to get superior homozygous inbred.
Evaluation and Selection of Inbreds Lines:
• The inbred is evaluated from its performance in hybrid combination with
other inbreds.
• They are evaluated on the basis of their GCA and SCA
There are two methods:
(a) Top Cross Method:
• It refers to a cross between an inbred line (say 4) crossed to common tester
(OPV) to produce 4 single crosses.
• The yield performance of these crosses is evaluated in replicated trails on
multi locations.
• The line, which produces high yielding single cross with tester, are
selected.
b) Single Cross Method:
• This method is used to measure the specific combining ability (SCA)
of those inbreds, which are selected on the basis of top cross
performance.
• The selected lines are crossed in all possible combination.
• These single crosses are evaluated in replicated trials over several
locations for yield performance.
• The best performing single crosses are identified for release as a
variety.
• This method can evaluate only limited number of inbreds at a time.
III) Production of Hybrid Seed:
• After identification of superior lines, crossing is done to produce hybrid seeds.
There are three types of Inter-varietal hybrid.
1. Single cross hybrid 2. Three way cross hybrid 3. Double cross hybrid.
• In case of single and three way cross hybrids, the rows of female and male
parents are planted in 2:1 ratio.
• In case of three way cross hybrid, the single cross hybrid is used as female
parent and inbred lines as male parent.
• While in case of double cross hybrid , the rows of female and male parent are
planted in 3:1 or 4:1 ratio.
• The seed production is carried out in isolation to prevent crossing with other
compatible genotypes and maintain the high genetic purity.
Parental selection
Selection in a plant breeding programme takes two forms:
1. Selection of superior parents
2. Selection of desirable recombinants which have resulted from inter-
mating chosen parents
• Parents used in plant breeding programmes are chosen from a wide
source of possible genetic material
• Parental selection is a cyclic operation where parents are selected,
inter-mated, recombinants screened from segregating populations
and these, in turn, are used as parents in the next round of the
scheme.
Parental selection
In deciding which parents are to be used in a breeding scheme there are
two types of evaluations possible:
1. Phenotypic evaluation
2. Genotypic evaluation
Phenotypic evaluation
Phenotypic evaluation is often the first stage of parental selection.
Genotypic evaluation
• Although new parent has proven to have some merit on its phenotypic
performance
• More detailed examination of genotypic worth carried out, there is
possibility that a valuable genotype might hide within a poor
phenotype.
• Nevertheless, because of limited resources and a lesser probability of
a poor phenotype proving to be a good genotype, most effort is
devoted to further evaluating proven material to determine the true
value of the parent in cross combination.
 GCA and SCA
• The most common means to determine the genetic potential of new parental
lines is to examine a series of progeny in which the new parent features as
one of the parents.
• From these studies it is possible to determine the general combining ability
of a series of different genotypes and to use this information to select the
most desirable parental lines.
• General combining ability is an indication of how the progeny from a
particular genotype crossed to a range of other genotypes responds.
• Effective means of determining GCA and SCA is by diallel crossing
designs
• GCA is average performance of parental crosses
• SCA is the deviation of individual crosses from the average of crosses
Diallel design
A set of crosses produced involving “n”
lines in all possible combinations
–The best way to determine the combining
ability of parents
–The analysis of such crosses is known as
diallel analysis.
•The analysis of diallels
–provides information on GCA and SCA
of parents and their crosses, and
–enables us to see if the reciprocal cross
gives equivalent results or if there is
maternal effect
 Parental line x tester

• General combing ability can be estimated from other crossing

designs.
• The simplest crosses involves evaluating the progeny that are
produced by crossing the potential parent with one or more tester
lines.
• For example, a new parent may be crossed to a genetically
productive genotype and also to one with little genetic worth.
• The contribution of the parent can be observed by examination of the
offspring from the crosses.
• For example, if there are 3 testers
and 7 lines, we have 7 x 3 = 21
crosses
• For evaluation, the 21 crosses along
with 10 parents, i.e., 7 lines and 3
testers, for a total of 31 entries,
might be tested in a RCBD with 4
• replications.
North Carolina I designs
• North Carolina II designs
Pedigree selection method
• Pedigree selection is a widely used method of breeding self-pollinated
species (and even cross-pollinated species
• A key difference between pedigree selection and mass selection or pure-line
selection is that hybridization is used to generate variability (for the base
population). The method was first described by H.H. Lowe in 1927.

The key steps in the pedigree selection procedure are:

Establish a base population by making a cross of selected parents.
Space-plant progenies of selected plants.
Keep accurate records of selection from one generation to the next.
Procedures for pedigree selection method
• Year 1. Identify desirable homozygous parents and make about 20–200
crosses
• Year 2. Grow 50–100 F1 plants including parents for comparison to
authenticate its hybridity.
• Year 3. Grow about 1000–2000 F2 plants. Space plant to allow individual
plants to be examined and documented. Include check cultivars for
comparison. Desirable plants are selected and harvested separately, keeping
records of their identities.
• Year 4. Seed from superior plants are progeny rowed in F3 to F5
generations, making sure to space-plant in the rows for easy record keeping.
Selection at this stage is both within and between rows by first identifying
superior rows and selecting 3–5 plants from each progeny to plant the next
generation.
• Year 5. By the end of the F4 generation, there would be between 25 and 50
• Year 6. Family rows are planted in the F6 to produce experimental lines for
preliminary yield trials in the F7.
• check variety is a locally adapted cultivar. Several checks may be included in
the trial.
• Year 7. Advanced yield trials over locations, regions, and years are
conducted in the F8 to F10
Advantages of pedigree method
Record keeping provides a catalog of genetic information of the cultivar
unavailable from other methods.
Selection is based not only on phenotype but also on genotype (progeny
row) making it an effective method for selecting superior lines from among
segregating.
A high degree of genetic purity is produced in the cultivar
Easy to detect inferior genotype and eliminate during early segregating
generation
New information can early be detected from segregating population
Disadvantages
Record keeping is slow, tedious, time consuming, and expensive.
It places pressure on resources (e.g., land for space-planting for easy
observation).
 The method is not suitable for species in which individual plants are
difficult to isolate and characterize.
Pedigree selection is a long procedure, requiring about 10–12 years or
more to complete.
The method is more suited for qualitative than for quantitative disease
resistance breeding.
• Very experienced plant breeder
Bulk population selection method
• Bulk population breeding is a strategy of crop improvement in which natural
selection effect is solicited more directly in the early generations of the
procedure by delaying artificial selection until later generations.

Key features
• The rationale for delaying artificial selection is to allow natural selection
pressure (e.g., abiotic factors such as drought, cold) to eliminate or reduce
the productivity of less fit genotypes in the population.
• Just like the pedigree method, the bulk method also applies pure line theory
to segregating populations to develop pure line cultivars.
Procedures for bulk selection method
• Year 1. Identify desirable parents (cultivars, single crosses, etc.) and make
sufficient number of crosses between them.
• Year 2. Following a cross between appropriate parents, about 50–100 F1
plants are planted and harvested as a bulk.
• Year 3. Seeds from the second year are used to plant a bulk plot of about
2000–3000 F2 plants. The F2 is bulk harvested.
• Year 4–6. A sample of the F2 seed is planted in bulk plots, repeating the
steps for year 2 and year 3 until F4 or when a desired level of homozygosity
has been attained in the population. Space plant about 3000–5000 F5 plants
and select about 10% (300–500) superior plants for planting F6 progeny
rows.
• Year 7. Select and harvest about 10% (30–50) progeny rows that exhibit
genes for desired traits for planting preliminary yield trails in the F7.
Procedure for bulk selection method
• Year 8 and later. Conduct advanced yield trials from F8 through F10 at
multiple locations including adapted cultivars as checks. After identifying a
superior line, it is put through the customary cultivar release process.
Advantages
• It is simple and convenient to conduct.
• It is less labor intensive and less expensive in early generations.
• Natural selection may increase frequency of desirable genotypes by the end
of the bulking period.
• It is compatible with mass selection in self-pollinated species.
• Bulk breeding allows large amounts of segregating materials to be handled.
Consequently, the breeder can make and evaluate more crosses.
• The cultivar developed would be adapted to the environment, having been
derived from material that had gone through years of natural selection.
• Single plant selections are made when plants are more homozygous, making
it more effective to evaluate and compare plant performance.
Disadvantages
• Superior genotypes may be lost to natural selection, while undesirable ones
are promoted during the early generations.
• It is not suited to species that are widely spaced in normal production.
• Genetic characteristics of the populations are difficult to ascertain from one
generation to the next.
• Genotypes are not equally represented in each generation because all plants
in one generation are not advanced to the next generation.
• Selecting in off-season nurseries and the greenhouse may favor genotypes
that are undesirable in the production region where the breeding is
conducted, and hence is not a recommended practice.
• The procedure is lengthy, but cannot take advantage of off-season planting
Backcrossing method
• This application in plants was first proposed by H.V. Harlan and M.N. Pope
in 1922. In principle, backcross breeding does not improve the genotype of
the product, except for the substituted gene(s).
Key features
• The rationale of backcross breeding is to replace a specific undesirable gene
with a desirable alternative, while preserving all other qualities (adaptation,
productivity, etc.) of an adapted cultivar (or breeding line).
• Instead of inbreeding the F1 as normally done, it is repeatedly crossed with
the desirable parent to retrieve the desirable genotype.
• The adapted and highly desirable parent is called the recurrent parent in the
crossing program, while the source of the desirable gene missing in the
adapted parent is called the donor parent.
Application of Backross method
The backcross method of breeding is best suited to improving established
cultivars that are later found to be deficient in one or two specific traits.
Backcrossing is used to transfer entire sets of chromosomes in the foreign
cytoplasm to create a cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) genotype that is used
to facilitate hybrid production in species including corn, onion, and wheat.
Backcrossing is also used for the introgression of genes via wide crosses.
However, such programs are often lengthy because wild plant species
possess significant amounts of undesirable traits.
Backcross breeding can also be used to develop isogenic lines
Backcrossing is applicable in the development of multilines.
Backcross method
• This method is essentially used when you want to add a superior or desirable
character to adapted variety
• E.g. Variety B (rice) have good aroma, high yield and good milling quality,
but is susceptible to stem rust disease.
• Variety A is resistant to stem rust but poor aroma and low yielding.
• You wat to tap resistant gene from A to B without affecting other important
attributes.
• Let say B = rr (superior) and A= RR (inferior)
• RR is called the recurrent parent
• rr is donor parent
Procecures for backross method
• Year 1. Select donor (RR) and recurrent parent (rr) and make 10–20 crosses.
Harvest F1 seed
• Year 2. Grow F1 plants and cross (backcross) with recurrent parent to
obtain first backcross (BC1).
• Year 3–7. Grow the appropriate BC (BC1–BC5) and backcross to the
recurrent parent as female.
• Each time, select about 30–50 heterozygous parents (BCs) that most
resemble the recurrent parent to be used in the next backcross.
• The recessive genotypes are discarded after each backcross. The breeder
should use any appropriate screening techniques to identify the
heterozygotes (and discard the homozygous recessive). After six
backcrosses, the BC5 would very closely resemble the recurrent parent and
express the donor trait.
Procedures
• As generations advance, most plants would be increasingly more like the
adapted cultivar.
• Year 8. Grow BC5F1 plants to be selfed. Select several hundred (300–400)
desirable plants and harvest individually.
• Year 9. Grow BC5F2 progeny rows. Identify and select about 100 desirable
non-segregating progenies and bulk.
• Year 10. Conduct yield tests of backcross with recurrent cultivar to
determine equivalence before releasing.
Adv. Backcross method
 The genotype of new variety is nearly
identical with that of the recurrent parents.
 It is not necessary to test the variety developed
by this method, because the performance of
recurrent parent is known.
 It is not depend upon environment.
 It is useful for developing disease resistance
variety
 It is rapid, predicted and repeatable
Disadvange of backross method
New variety cannot be superior to the recurrent parent except for the
character transfer from donor parents.
Undesirable genes may also transferred to the new variety.
The method is too demanding since hybridization has to be done for each
backcross
Does not permit combination of genes from more than two parents.
Breeding cross-pollinated species
Breeding cross-pollinated species
• Breeding cross-pollinated species tends to focus on population
improvement.
• In addition to methods such as mass selection that are applicable to both
self-pollinated and cross-pollinated species, there are specific methods
that are suited to population improvement.
• Further, certain methods are more effective and readily applied for
breeding certain species than others.
• Breeders seek to change the gene frequency such that desirable
genotypes predominate in the population.
• In the process of changing gene frequencies, new genotypes (that did not
exist in the initial population) will arise.
Breeding cross-pollinated species
• It is important for breeders to maintain genetic variability in these
populations, so that further improvements of the population may be
achieved in the future.
• To improve the population, breeders assemble germplasm, evaluate,
self-selected plants, cross the progenies of the selected selfed plants
in all possible combinations, bulk, and develop inbred lines from the
populations
• In cross-pollinated species, a cyclical selection approach, called
recurrent selection, is often used for intermating.
• The cyclical selection was developed to increase the frequency of
favorable genes for quantitative traits.
• Various methods of recurrent selection are used for producing
progenies for evaluation
• The procedures for population improvement may be classified in
several ways, such as according to the unit of selection – either
individual plants or family of plants.
• The method may be grouped according to the populations
undergoing selection as either intrapopulation or interpopulation.
Intrapopulation improvement
Selection is practiced within a specific population for its improvement
for specific purposes.
Inter-population improvement
is suitable for improving populations for:
 Which the end product will be a population or synthetic cultivar.
 Developing elite pure lines for hybrid production.
 Developing mixed genotype cultivars (in self-fertilized species).

• Methods of inter-population improvement entail selection on the

basis of the performance of a cross between two populations.
• This approach is suitable for use when the final product will be a
hybrid cultivar.
 Key features of recurrent selection
A recurrent selection cycle consists of three main phases:-
 Individual families are created for evaluation. Parents are crossed
in all possible combinations.
 The plants or families are evaluated and a new set of parents
selected.
 The selected parents are inter-mated to produce the population for
• Thethe next cycle of selection.
selection cycle is repeated several
times.
• The first cycle is labeled C0, and is called
the base population.
• The subsequent cycles are named
consecutively as C1, C2 . . . . . . . Cn
 Recurrent selection
• Is the technique in which desirable individuals are selected from a
population and mated to form a new population
• The purpose of a recurrent selection in a plant breeding program is to
improve the performance of a population with respect to one or more
traits of interest.
• The source material may be random mating populations, synthetic
cultivars, single cross, or double cross.
• The improved population may be released as new cultivar or used as
a breeding material (parent) in other breeding programs.
 Recurrent selection
• The success of a recurrent selection program depends on the genetic
nature of the base population.
• Several key factors should be considered in the development of the
base population.
• The parents should have high performance regarding the traits of
interest and should not be closely related.
• It is also recommended to include as many parents as possible in the
initial crossing to increase genetic diversity.
• Crossing provides opportunity for recombination of genes to increase
genetic diversity of the population.
 Recurrent selection method
• More rounds of mating will increase the opportunity for
recombination but it increases the duration of the breeding program.
• The breeder should decide on the number of generations of
intermating that is appropriate for a breeding program.
Application of recurrent selection in plant breeding
• Recurrent selection may be used to establish a broad genetic base in
a breeding program.
• Because of multiple opportunities for intermating, the breeder may
add new germplasm during the procedure when the genetic base of
the population rapidly narrows after selection cycles.
Types of recurrent selection
• There are four basic recurrent selection schemes, based on how plants
with the desired traits are identified:
Simple recurrent selection.
• This is similar to mass selection with one or two years per cycle.
• The procedure does not involve the use of a tester.
• Selection is based on phenotypic scores.
• This procedure is also called phenotypic recurrent selection.
• Recurrent selection for general combining ability.
• This is a half-sib progeny test procedure in which a wide genetic
based genotype is used as a tester. The test cross performance is
evaluated in replicated trials prior to selection.
Recurrent selection for specific combining ability.
This scheme uses an inbred line for a tester. The test cross performance
is evaluated in replicated trails before selection.

Reciprocal recurrent selection.

This scheme is capable of exploiting both general and specific
combining ability.
It involves two heterozygous populations, each serving as a tester for
the other.
 Synthetic
cultivars
• Synthetic variety is a variety developed by selecting a number of
inbred lines with good general combining ability (gca), intercrossing
them in all possible combinations and mixing the seeds of all the
crosses conducted, in equal quantity.
• Once synthesized, a synthetic is maintained by open-pollination in
isolation.
• There are three primary steps in the development of a synthetic:
 Assembly of parents.
 Assessment of GCA.
 Random mating to produce synthetic cultivars.
 Production of Synthetic Variety from established Inbred lines
• Develop the inbred line from the based population. Cross the inbreds
with common tester (top crossing) to test combining ability
• Seeds from the crosses are harvested separately
• Replicate yield trials to evaluate these top crosses with check
• Identify the inbred lines with good general combining ability (gca
• Conduct all possible single crosses among selected inbred lines,
harvest the seeds separately
• Seeds from single crosses are mixed in equal quantity
• Seed multiplication by open pollination with isolation, for one or two
generation
• Variety release
Advantage of synthetic varieties
• Synthetic varieties offer a feasible means of utilizing heterosis in crop
species, where pollination control is difficult.
• Farmers can use the grain produced from a synthetic varieties as seed
to raise the next crop. In variable environments synthetic are likely to
do better than hybrid variety.
• The cost of seed in synthetic variety is relatively lower than hybrid
varieties.
• Seed production in case of synthetic variety required less skill
operation than hybrid.
• Synthetic varieties are good reservoirs of genetic variability.
 Disadvantege of synthetic variety
• The performance of synthetic variety is usually lower than best single
or double cross hybrid.
• Synthetic variety can be produced and maintained only in cross-
pollinated crop.
• The performance of synthetic variety is adversely affected to
relatively poorer GCA.
Composite variety development
Composite variety
• Composite variety is developed by combining or mixing genotypes
from several sources.
• Composite variety is made from mixing the seeds of various
genotypes, which are similar in maturity, height, seed size, colour, etc
• The variety is maintained by open pollination.
• Farmers can use their own seed for 3 to 4 years.
Procedures for development of composite
variety
• There is no restriction to the number of lines included in the
development of composite. insect resistance, drought and frost
resistance, high yielding.
• The seeds of desired selected lines mixed together and random
mating is allowed for 4-5 generations.
• In the subsequent generation of random mating, the undesirable types
are eliminated to achieve uniformity and homogeneity in various
morphological characters.
• Such uniform population is tested in replicated trials, across
environment along with standards checks.
• High yielding stable type can be released as composite variety.
Methods of breeding asexual propagated plants
-Crops which are propagated asexually or by vegetative means are known as
asexually propagated or vegetatively propagated or clonal crops.
The main reasons of asexual reproduction are
 Reduced flowering and seed set
 Non flowering
 To avoid inbreeding depression in certain crops
 Apomixis in some species.
-Asexual reproduction produces the progeny, which are exactly identical to
their parent in genotype. Therefore, the main advantage of asexually
reproduction is that it preserves the genotype of an individual indefinitely.
Method for breeding asexual propagated plants
 There three method for breeding asexual propagated plants
 Planned introduction
 Clonal selection
 Hybridization
Clonal selection
Improvement of asexually propagated crops by selecting superior clones is
known as clonal selection. Superior clones can be isolated from three types
of materials such as
 Local variety
 Introduced variety
 Inter crossed populations.
Clonal selection for cultivar
development
This procedure is effective if variability exists in the natural clonal
population.
Year 1. Assemble clonal population. Plant and expose to diseases of
interest.
Select resistant clones with other superior traits and harvest individually.
Year 2. Grow progenies of selected clones and evaluate as in year 1.
Select superior clones.
Year 3. Conduct preliminary yield trials. Select superior clones.
Years 4–6. Conduct advanced yield trials at multi- locations for cultivar
release.
Clonal selection for cultivar development
-This procedure is applicable to species that are capable of producing
seed in appreciable quantities.
-Because heterosis is fixed in clonal population, breeder may conduct analysis
on combining ability to determine the best combiners to use in crosses.
Year 1. Cross selected parents. Harvest F1 seed.
Year 2. Plant and evaluate F1s. Select vigorous and healthy plants.
Year 3. Space plant clonal progeny rows of selected plants. Select about 100–
200 superior plant progenies.
Year 4. Conduct preliminary yield trials.
Years 5–7. Conduct advanced yield trials for cultivar release.
Advantages
• Sterility is not a factor in clonal propagation because seed is not involved.
• Because clonal plants are homogeneous, the commercial product is
uniform.
• Micro-propagation can be used to rapidly multiply planting material.

Disadvantages
• Clonal propagules are often bulky to handle (e.g., stems, bulbs).
• Clones are susceptible to devastation by an epidemic.
• Clonal propagules are difficult to store for a long time, because they are
generally fresh and succulent materials.