Resistance

Lecture 04

Dr Faheemullah Shaikh
Associate Professor
 Introduction

• The resistance of any material with a uniform

cross-sectional area is determined by the
following factors:
– Material
– Length
– Cross-sectional Area
– Temperature
 Introduction
• Material and its unique molecular structure
will react differently to pressures to establish
current through its core.
– Conductors – Permit generous flow of charge
– Insulators – Have high resistance
 Introduction

• As the temperature of most conductors

increases, the increased motion of particles
within the molecular structure makes it
increasingly difficult for the “free” carriers
to pass through, and the resistance level
increases.
 Resistance: Circular Wires
• The higher the resistivity of a conductor, the
higher its resistance.
• The longer the length of a conductor, the
higher its resistance.
• The lower the cross-sectional area of a
conductor, the higher its resistance.
• The higher the temperature of a conductor,
the higher its resistance.
 Resistance: Circular Wires

• Resistivity is not the only factor used in determining

the best conductor. Other factors are:
– Malleability – ability of a material to be shaped
– Ductility – ability of a material to be drawn into
long, thin wires
– Temperature sensitivity
– Resistance to abuse
– Cost
 Resistance: Circular Wires

• Copper is the most widely used material because it is quite

malleable, ductile and available.
• Aluminum was tried for general wiring but because of its
thermal characteristics created difficulties.
• Silver and gold are used but because of cost, they have
been limited to places that justify the cost.
• Tungsten has a resistivity three times that of copper but
there are occasions when its physical characteristics
(durability and hardness) are the overriding considerations.
 Wire Tables
• Designed to standardize the size of wire produced
by manufacturers, it contains the following
information:
– Cross-sectional area in circular mils
– Diameter in mils
– Ohms per 1000 feet at 20°C
– Weight per 1000 feet
– Maximum allowable current in amperes, as determined
by the National Fire Protection Association
• The American Wire Gage (AWG) indicates cable
size
 Temperature Effects
• Temperature has a significant effect on the
resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
insulators.
– For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an
increase in the resistance level. Consequently, conductors have
positive temperature coefficients.
– For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will
result in a decrease in the resistance level. Consequently,
semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients.
– As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a
decrease in the resistance of an insulator. The result is a negative
temperature coefficient.
 Superconductors
• Superconductors are conductors of electric
charge that, for all practical purposes, have
zero resistance.
• The relatively low speed of electrons through
conventional conductors is due to collisions
with atoms and repulsive forces from other
electrons.
 Types of Resistors
• Resistors are made in many forms but all belong
in either of two groups:
– Fixed resistors – are made of metal films, high-
resistance wire or carbon composition
– Variable resistors – have a terminal resistance that
can be varied by turning a dial, knob, screw, or
anything else appropriate for the application
 Types of Resistors
• Variable resistors can have two or three
terminals. Most have three.
• Variable resistors are classified as a rheostat
or a potentiometer, depending upon the
application.
– Rheostat: Two- or three-terminal device used as
a variable resistor
– Potentiometer: Three-terminal device used for
controlling potential levels
 Types of Resistors
• Most potentiometers have three
terminals as shown.
• The knob, dial or screw in the Figure 3.24
center of the housing controls
the motion of a contact that can
move along the resistive element
connected between the outer
terminals.
• The contact is connected to the
center terminal, establishing a
resistance from a movable
contact to each outer terminal.
 Types of Resistors
• The resistance between the outside
terminals a and c is always fixed at the
full rated value of the potentiometer,
regardless of the position of the wiper
arm (b).
• The resistance between the wiper
arm and either outside terminal can
be varied from a minimum of 0  to a
maximum value equal to the full rated
value of the potentiometer.
• The sum of the resistances between
the wiper arm and each outside
terminal will equal the full rated
resistance of the potentiometer.
Color Coding and Standard Resistor
Values
• Color coding was developed to identify
resistors that were too small for their
resistance value to be printed on them.
– Color bands are always read from the end
that has the bands closest to it.
– 1st and 2nd band represent the first two digits
– 3rd band determines the power-of-ten
multiplier (the number of zeros following the
second digit)
– 4th band is the manufacturer’s tolerance
(precision of the resistor)
Standard Values of Resistors
 Conductance
• The reciprocal of resistance is conductance (G),
measured in siemens (S)

G = 1/R (siemens, S)

• A resistance of 1 M is equivalent to a
conductance of 10-6 S and a resistance of 10  is
equivalent to a conductance of 10-1 S.
 Applications
• Electric baseboard heating element
– Heat is generated by passing current through a resistive
element.
• Dimmer controls in an automobile
– A two-point rheostat can be used to control light
intensity on the dashboard and accessories of an
automobile.
• Strain gauges
– Change in the shape of a structure can be detected using
strain gauges whose resistance will change with applied
stress or flex.