S K Maheshwari

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 Content to be covered…….
• Concepts of data collection
• Data sources, methods /techniques quantitative
and qualitative.
• Tools for data collection – types, characteristics
and their development
• Validity and reliability of tools

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 Data Collection
• Data- Piece of information about the
phenomenon under study.
• Aim of gathering and summarizing the data-
Transform data into meaningful information in
order to identify and measure variables.
• An ideal data collection procedure should be
clear, unbiased, reliable and valid.

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 Data Collection

• The 5 W’s of data collection are:

1. What data is to be collected?

2. From whom data is to be collected?

3. Who will collect data?

4. From where the data will be collected?

5. When is the data collected?

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Data Collection Method
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Tools & Methods of Data Collection
• Tools
A device/ instrument used by the researcher
to collect data (to measure the concept of
interest )
• Methods
Various steps or strategies used for gathering
and analyzing data in a research

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 Types of Data Collection Methods
1. Self reports
– Interview
• Unstructured
• Semi structured
• Structured questionnaire
– SAQ
2. Observational method.
3. Bio-physiologic measurements.
4. Psychometric measurements.
5. Other - projective technique.

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 Tools for Data Collection
• Self report:
– Questionnaire, attitude scale, semantic differential
scale, visual analog scale.
• Observation :
– Rating scale, check list, anecdotal record, Process
recording video tapes etc.,
• Bio physiological :
– In-vitro
– In-vivo

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 SELF-REPORTS

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 Self - Reports
• It is a method in which information is gathered
by questioning people.
• By questioning, good amount of information can
be gathered.
• Self - Reports
– Interview methods.
– Self administered questionnaire (SAQ) (or) paper
and pencil test

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 Self-Reports
Qualitative Self-Reports
1. Unstructured Interviews
2. Semi-Structured Interviews
3. Focus Group Interviews
4. Joint Interviews
5. Life Histories
6. Oral Histories
7. Critical incidents
8. Diaries & Journals
9. The Think-Aloud Method
10. Photo Elicitation Interviews
Quantitative Self-Reports
1. Structured interview
2. Questioning
3. Scales
4. Q-Sorts
5. Vignettes
 Qualitative Self-Reports

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 Interview
• Involves verbal communication between the researcher
and the subject during which information is provided to
the researcher.
• Interview is a conversation carried art with the definite
purpose of obtaining certain information by means of
spoken word.
• Most common method in qualitative and descriptive
studies.
• Investigator collect data directly from the participants by
having face to face contact, to obtain factual data about
opinion, attitude etc.
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 Interview: Benefits
1. Provides in–depth and detailed information
2. Data from illiterate subjects
3. Higher Response
4. Clarify mis-understanding
5. Ask questions at several levels
6. Helps to gather supplementary information
7. Use of special devices
8. Accuracy can be checked
9. Flexible and adaptable

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 Types of Interview
1. Unstructured interview (non directive or non
standardized)
2. Semi structured interview (or) focused interview
3. Completely structured interview

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 Unstructured Interview
• Characterized by a flexibility of approach to
questioning.
• Interviewer freely asks the questions according to his
own wish when required or omit the certain questions.
• Subjects are encouraged to talk freely and only very
few questions asked to direct the trend of the
interview.
• Researcher is having greater freedom to record or omit
the responses.
• It may be also called as ‘Grand Tour’ technique.

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 Unstructured Interview
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Information obtained in such 1. Interviewer requires great
a casual manner enhances deal of knowledge and skill
reliability and credibility of in order to analyse the data.
data. 2. Information cannot be
2. Explorative and qualitative compared.
studies
3. Analysis will be difficult.
3. Less prone to interviewer
4. Data interpretation based
biases.
on researcher’s perception
4. “Probs” questions can be and subjective feelings.
assuring additional
5. Time wasting.
information to clarify.
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 Semi- structured Interview

• Used when researcher have a list of topics or broad

questions that must be addressed in an interview
• Interviewer's make a topic guide/interview guide
containing broad list of topics to be covered in an
interview.
• Topic guide- A set of questions or list of topics
• Participants are assured to talk freely about the topic
mention in topic guide.
• Researcher will ask questions to different ways to
different participants.
• Includes both closed ended and open ended questions.
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 Semi- structured Interview
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Less prone to interviewer's 1. Some of the information
bias. may not be revealed.
2. More information can be 2. Need to prepare a topic
explored from the guide.
respondent’s.
3. Needed data is collected.
4. Guides the interview.

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 Structured Interview
• It involves asking the same questions, in the
same order, and in same manner of all
respondents in a study.
• It commonly have fixed type, and closed ended
questions.
• It also known as standardized interview.
• Interviewers are not permitted to change even
specific wording also.
• It increases the reliability and credibility of data.

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 Structured Interview
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Data of two interviews are 1. In-depth information may
easily comparable. not be possible.
2. Recording, coding and 2. Exploration of data is
analysis of data is easy. limited.
3. Avoids irrelevant 3. It may not cover all the
purposeless conversation. possible responses or
respondent views.

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 Focus – Group Interviews
• In this interviews, homogenous group of 5-10
people whose opinions and experiences are
solicited simultaneously.
• The interviewer/ researcher guide the discussion
according to written set of questions or topics.
• It is a planned discussion.
• Duration of the interview ranges from 1.5-2 hours.
• All the verbal & non-verbal information is recorded.
• Ample opportunity is given to respondents to
express their views.
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 Focus – Group Interviews
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Efficient and can generate a 1. Chances of client or
lot of information. researcher’s bias.
2. Stimulates new ideas and 2. May be difficult to
creative concepts moderate by one person.
3. Involves many participants 3. Data difficult to code,
at one time. analyze and interpret.
4. Participants may feel 4. Focus group may not be
comfortable to answer in a representative of entire
group with similar interests. population.

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 Joint Interviews
• They are conducted simultaneously to understand the
phenomenon involving two or more parties. People
involved in the interview are intimately related.
• Example: Experiences of AIDS patients and their
caretakers.
• Merits:
1. Helpful in observing dynamics between two key
actors.
• De-merits:
1. Only supplements information.
2. May be un-comfortable to participants as some things
can not be discussed in front of other people.
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 Life Histories
• They are narrative self-disclosures about
individual life experiences.
• Researchers ask respondents to provide, often
in chronologic sequence, a narration of their
ideas and experiences, either orally or writing.
• Life histories are usually done in the
ethnographic studies.
• Example: A study involving experiences of
women who had simultaneously experienced
abuse and physical disability.

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 Critical Incidents
• It is a method of gathering information about people’s
behaviors by examining specific incidents relating to
the behavior under investigation.
• The word ‘critical’ means that the incident must have
had a positive or negative impact on some outcome.
• Example: A study involving the outcomes of stress
management program. The 5-week program taught
‘mind-body-spiritual’ technique of silently repeating a
mantra with spiritual meaning. 3-months later, critical
incident interviews with 55 participants yielded 147
incidents involving application of the technique.

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 Diaries and Journals
• Personal diaries and journals provide an intimate and
detailed description of person’s everyday life.
• They can be unstructured or semi-structured.
• They provide information about how people prevent
illness, maintain health, experience morbidity and treat
health problems.
• They can be used for people with literacy skills and
depend on high level of participant cooperation.
• Example: Older Adults with chronic health problems can
be asked to maintain a diary over 2-week period for 15
mins per day to explore various strategies used by them
to manage health problems.
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 Photo- Elicitation Interviews
• It involves an interview stimulated and guided by
photographic images.
• Photographs of the participant’s world are taken up by
the researcher themselves or by the participants and
become a stimulus for discussion.
• Example: In an attempt to explore meaning and
experience of hope among young people living in
Australia, participants can be given a disposable camera
to take photos showing hope for them and then
questioned during interviews.
• Participants need to be continually reassured that their
taken-for granted explanations of the photos are
providing new and detailed information.
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 Quantitative Self-Reports

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 Questioning
• This method allows the researcher to gather
information by asking the questions orally
(interview) or by means of a formal, written
document (questionnaire).
• Questionnaire - is a structured instrument
consisting of a series of questions prepared by
researcher on a paper and that a subject is
asked to complete either through pencil or
through a computer and is used to gather data
r/t phenomenon under study.

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 Questioning
• The instrument is called a SAQ when
respondents complete the instrument
themselves, usually in a paper & pencil format.
• SAQ also known as ‘survey’ .
• Methods of Questionnaire Administration:
1. Direct Administration-Researcher will distribute
the questionnaire and respondent answer items
by writing or checking against correct response.
2. Post or e-mail including all electronic means.
(Mailed questionnaire)
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 Questionnaire: Types of Questions
• Open-ended questions
• Provide opportunity to the respondents to
express their opinions and answers in their own
way.
• No predetermined set of responses.
• Provide true, insightful and unexpected
suggestions.
Example:
• What did you do when you discovered you had
AIDS?
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 Questionnaire: Types of Questions
• Closed-ended questions
• Closed–ended questions or fixed-alternative
questions- Response alternatives are pre-
specified by the researcher.
• Facilitate easy statistical analysis.
• Can be asked to different groups at different
intervals.

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 Questionnaire: Types of Questions
• Closed-ended questions
1. Dichotomous Questions
2. Multiple-choice Questions
3. Cafeteria Questions
4. Rank-order Questions
5. Contingency Questions
6. Rating Questions
7. Likert Questions
8. Bi-polar Questions
9. Matrix Questions
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 Closed-ended questions: Types
1. Dichotomous Questions
• Require respondent to make choices between
two responses such as
– yes/no
– male/female
2. Multiple-choice Questions
• Require respondents to make choice between
two- or more than two response alternatives.
• Example:

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 Closed-ended questions: Types
3. Cafeteria Question
• Requires respondents to select a best response
that most closely corresponds to their views.
E.g. What do you think about hormone-
replacement therapy (HRT) ?
A. It is dangerous, should be avoided.
B. One should be cautious while using it.
C. I am uncertain about my views.
D. It is beneficial, should be promoted.
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 Closed-ended questions: Types
4. Rank-Order Questions
• Requires respondents to rank their responses from most
favorable to least favorable.
• E.g. What according to you is most important for your life?
– Money ( )
– Education ( )
– Family ( )
– Health ( )
5. Contingency Questions
• A next question is asked if a respondent gives a particular
response to previous question only.
• E.g. Are you stressed?
– No Yes (If yes what are the reasons………… )
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 Closed-ended questions: Types
6. Rating Questions
• Requires respondents to judge something along an
ordered dimension.
• Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a
scale that ranges from poor to good. They may
provide a number of choices.
• E.g.
Question 1 2 3 4
How do you rank a quality Good Fair Poor Very Poor
of education in India?
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 Closed-ended questions: Types
7. Likert Questions
• Helps to know how strongly the respondent
agrees with a particular statement thus helping
to assess the feelings of the respondents
towards certain issue.
• E.g.

Question 1 2 3 4 1
This community is a Strongly Agree Uncertai Disagree Strongly
good place to raise Agree n Disagree
children.

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 Closed-ended questions: Types
8. Matrix Questions
• Include multiple questions and identical
response categories, placed one under the
other, forming a matrix.
• E.g. Please let me know your weekly schedule of
the following:
Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Gym √ √ √ √ √
Aerobics √
Eating √ √
Out
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 Scales
• Scale is a device designed to assign a numeric
score to people to place them on a continuum
with respect to attributes being measured.
• Used to measure subjective variables
objectively.
• Measuring the score between two opposite
concepts tells about the attitude of a subject
towards the direction of positive or negative
attitude in a scale.

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Scales: Types
 Likert Scale
• A Likert scale consists of several declarative
items that express a view point on a topic.
• Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to
which they agree or disagree with the the
statement.
• Usually contains five degrees (but 3 - 7 may
used).
• Developed using item analysis approach.

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 Likert Scale: Example

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 Likert Scale: Uses
• Measure the attitudes, values, and feelings of
the people about specific concepts such as
situations, people, places, objects, programs,
practices, policies and so on.
• Quantified measurement of qualitative
attributes.
• Assess opinions of the respondents about
particular abstract concept.

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 Likert Scale
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Easy to construct 1. Respondents may feel forced to
2. More reliable and valid tool answer pre-planned items
to measure psychosocial 2. Feelings of the respondents
variables may not be fully assessed.
3. Easy to administer
3. Difficulty in justifying the
4. Less time consuming during selection of number of
construction and categories & numerical
administration assignment to these categories.
4. Casual approach on part of
respondent may mislead

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 Semantic Differential Scale
• Semantic Differential Scale consists of two
opposite adjectives with a 7-point scale
between them.
• Respondent is asked to rate a given concept by
selecting one point on the scale that best
describes his or her point of view.
• The adjectives commonly used such as
– effective/ineffective,
– good/bad, or
– important/unimportant.
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Semantic Differential Scale: Example

NURSE PRACTITIONERS

Competent 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Incompeten
t

Worthless 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Valuable

Pleasant 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Semantic Differential Scale: Uses

1. Patient Satisfaction Survey

2. Customer Satisfaction Survey
3. Employee Survey
4. Marketing Survey
5. Operational Research
6. Personality Measurements
7. Clinical psychology
 Semantic Differential Scale
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Easy to construct 1. Difficult to select relevant
2. Highly flexible. concepts appropriate for a
3. Useful in evaluating several given study.
concepts such as person,
2. Time consuming to find
place, situation, abstract
bipolar adjectives.
idea, controversial issue etc

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 Visual Analogue Scale
• It is used to measure the intensity of certain
sensations and feelings such as pain, discomfort,
anxiety, alertness, severity of clinical symptoms,
functional ability, and attitude towards
environmental conditions.
• It is a 100 mm horizontal or vertical line with a
statement at either end representing one
extreme of the dimension being measured.
• It requires subjects to respond for particular
phenomenon measured, which is later measured
by using a ruler from left end.
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 Visual Analogue Scale: Example

Worst
No Pain
Pain
 Visual Analogue Scale
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Reliable and Valid tool to 1. Cannot be used to compare
measure the intensity of results across group of
certain sensations and individuals at same time.
feelings.
2. Rating of highly subjective
phenomenon is possible by
this scale.
3. Most useful in studying
changes in the
phenomenon.

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 Vignettes
• It is a method that can elicit perceptions,
opinions, beliefs and attitudes from responses
or comments to stories depicting scenarios and
situations.
• They can be hypothetical or factual.
• They can be written or oral.
• Provides face-to-face contact with the
respondents and explore the topics in-depth.

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 OBSERVATION

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 Observation
• It is a technique of collecting all the data or
acquiring information through occurrences that
can be observed through senses, with or
without mechanical devices.
• Use to :
1. understand an ongoing process or situation.
2. gather data on individual behaviors or
interactions between people.
3. know about physical setting.
4. where other methods are not possible.
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 Observation……
Advantages:
1. Collect data where and when an event or activity is
occurring.
2. Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to
provide information.
3. Validity of data is more.

Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to observer’s biases.
2. Howthrone Effect
3. Expensive & Time consuming.
4. Do not provide data about the rationale of
people’s activities.
Observation
 Qualitative Observation

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 Log (Field Diary)
• It is a daily record of events and conversations in
the field.
• A log is a historical listing of how researchers
have spent their time and can be used for
planning purposes, for example
– for keeping track of responses, and
– for reviewing what work has already been
completed.

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 Anecdotes

• They focus on behavior of particular interest.

• Anecdotes typically selects specific kinds of

events or behaviors for observation before
hand.
• The observer objectively & accurately records
the information.

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 Video Recording

• Video-tapes are mechanical devices used to

capture complex behaviors that might elude

notice by on-spot observers.

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 Video Recording
Advantages:
1.Captures even the fine units of behavior such as
micro-momentary facial expressions.
2.Offers possibility of checking the accuracy of coders
or the recording skills of participant observers.
3.Useful as training guide.
4.Easier to conceal camera than human behavior.

Dis-advantages:
1.Technical problems with lightening, camera lens etc.
2.Camera angle adopted could present a lop-sided view
of an event or situation.
3.Participants may be more self-conscious in front of
camera.
 Quantitative Observation

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 Checklist
• Checklists includes several items on a topic and
require same response format of all items.
• It consists of a list of items with a place to check or
to mark “Yes or No”.
• A checklist enables the observer to record present
or absence of trait.
• It consists of a listing of steps, activities, and
behaviours which the observer records when an
incident occurs.
• Useful for evaluating skills, behaviour, conditions,
personality, manifestations etc.

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 Checklist: Example
To evaluate student’s performance during surgical dressing
Sr. Behaviors Remarks
No
Yes No
1. Explains procedure
2. Arrange equipment for convenient use
3. Prepares patient
4. Washes hands
5. Maintains aseptic techniques
6. Removes dressing
7. Observes condition of wound
8. Cleans wound
9. Applies dressing
10. Makes patient comfortable
11. Complete charting
 Checklist…..

Advantages:
1.Allow inter-individual comparisons.
2.Simple method to record observation.
3.Useful in evaluating learning activities.
4.Useful in containing the attention of the observer.
5.Decreases the chances of error in observation.
 Checklist…..

Dis-Advantages:
1.Does not indicate quality of performance, so
usefulness is limited.
2.Only a limited content of overall clinical performance
can be evaluated.
3.Only the presence or absence of an attribute, behavior
or performance parameter may be assessed.
4.Degree of accuracy cannot be assessed.
 Rating Scales
• Resemble check lists but used when finer
discriminations is required and indicate the
degree to which a trait is present.
• Rating scales provide systematic procedures for
obtaining, recording and reporting the
observer’s judgement.
• By a rating is meant the judgement of one
person by another.

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 Rating Scales: Types

1. Graphic Rating Scale

2. Descriptive Rating Scale
3. Numerical Rating Scale
 Rating Scales: Types
Graphic Rating Scale
In this scale , performance is printed horizontally
at various points from lowest to highest. It includes
numerical points on the scale. It is anchored by two
extremes presented to respondents for evaluation of a
concept or object.
 Rating Scales: Types
Descriptive Rating Scale
This scale does not use numbers but divide the
assessment into series of verbal phrases to indicate
the level of performance.
E.g.
Judge the level of performance of nursing personnel
in an ICU?
Nursing Level of Clinical performance
Personnel
Very Active Active Moderately Passive
Active
A
B
C
 Rating Scales: Types
Numerical Rating Scale

It divides evaluation criteria in to a fixed

number of points, but defines numbers at the
extremes only.
 Rating Scale
Advantage Disadvantage
1. Easy to make and 1. Difficult or dangerous to
administer. fix-up rating about many
2. Easy to score. aspects of an individual.
3. Less time – consuming. 2. Chances of subjective
evaluation, thus scales may
4. Can be used for large
become unscientific and
population.
unreliable.
5. Can be used to evaluate
performance, skills and
product outcomes.

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 BIO-PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

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 Bio-Physiological Methods
• It involves the collection of bio-physiological
data from subjects by using the specialized
equipments to determine physical and biological
status of objects.
• Purpose:
1. To study physiological outcome of nursing care.
2. To evaluate nursing interventions.
3. To study correlation of physiological functioning
in patients with health problems

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Bio-Physiological Methods: Types
 Bio-Physiological Methods
Advantage Disadvantage
1. More accurate and error- 1. Requires use of expensive
less. instruments.
2. More objective in nature. 2. Requires significant
3. Provide valid measures for amount of training,
targeted variables. knowledge & experience.
4. Easy access to most of the 3. Use of instruments may
instruments used for bio- cause fear & anxiety.
physiological 4. May have harmful effects
measurements. on participants such as
repeated X-Ray exposure.

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 Quality of Tools

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 Quality of tools
• An ideal data collection procedure is one that
captures a construct in such a way that is
relevant, credible, accurate, truthful and
sensitive.
• Criteria for assessing quantitative tools are
1. Reliability
2. Validity
3. Sensitivity and specificity
4. Efficiency

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 Reliability
• Reliability: Consistency and accuracy of the
measuring instrument.
• Three aspect of reliability:
1. Stability
2. Internal consistency
3. Equivalence

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 Reliability
1. Stability
• It is the extent to which the similar result are
obtained on two separate administration.
• Test-retest reliability- Administration of same
tool on same sample on two different occasion
and then compare the scores by computing
reliability coefficient (correlation coefficient
between two scores)

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 Reliability
2. Internal consistency
• The extent that tool measure the same trait.
• Split-half technique- Items are split in two
group, usually odd and even items.
• Tool is administered and two set of score (odd
and even) is summed from each subjects.
• Calculation of correlation coefficient between
two set of score.

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 Reliability
3. Equivalence:
• Equal in value, amount between observer.
• Inter-rater / inter-observer reliability: Two or
more trained observer watch an event
simultaneously and independently, and record
data.
• Ensure the delivery of the tool in same manner
again and again.

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 Validity
• The degree to which an instrument measures
what is supposed to measure.
• Difficult to establish as compared to reliability
• Face validity- Refers to whether instrument
looks as though it is measuring the appropriate
construct.
• Content validity- Concern the degree to which
an instrument has an appropriate sample of
items of the construct being measured. Done by
panel of experts.
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 Validity
• Criterion related validity- determining the
relationship between an instrument and
external criterion.
• Instrument is valid if the its score correlates
highly with the score on the criteria .
• Example: Nurses professionalism scale and no.
of research publications (criterion).
• Score was correlated with no. of research
publications. More research articles ----more
score on professionalism.
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 Validity
• Sensitivity- Ability of the instrument to identify
the case correctly. (True positive)
• Specificity – Ability to identify non cases
correctly. (True negatives)
• Efficiency- Instruments which need less time
and energy/training to measure the construct
correctly.

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 To Conclude……..

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 Thanks

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