NUCLEUS

PRESENTED BY:
EDERLYN ENRIQUEZ
JUDERICK GALACETE
NUCLEU
S
• Nucleus is usually the most
conspicuous organelle of
eukaryotic cell.
• Nucleus is the repository of
genome and the source of
informational macromolecules
that govern the synthetic
activities of the cytoplasm.
 Description
• The shape of nucleus is variable according to cell type. It
is generally spheroid but ellipsoid or flattened nuclei may
also occur in certain cells.
• Most cells contain a single nucleus, known as mono or
uninucleate cells. Cells with two nuclei are known as
binucleate cells e.g. Paramecium. Sometimes more than
two nuclei are present in a single cell. Such cells are
called polynucleate or multinucleated cells. Such cells in
animals are called syncytial cells (e.g. osteoblast) and
such plants are termed coenocytes (e.g. siphonal algae).
General History of Nucleus
• Nucleus was observed by a Dutch Microscopist, Antonie
van Leeuwenhoek in 1710, as a centrally placed clear
area in the blood cells of amphibians and birds.
• Fontana (1781) recorded an ovoid structure in each of
the isolated epidermal cells of eel's skin. However,
• Robert Brown (1831) was the first to use the term
nucleus for a prominent body present in the orchid cell.
He stated that nucleus was the regular feature of the
cells and initiated the concept of nucleated cells.
Structure of Nucleus
• The nucleus is a complex structure with a thin
nuclear envelop, nucleoplasm, nuclear matrix,
chromatin, and nucleoli. It contains no
membranes or microtubules, and contains a
clear fluid substance, containing solutes and
proteins.
• Protozoans that form a mitotic spindle within
the nuclear envelop, however, have
microtubules in their nuclei (Fig. 1).
Chemical Composition: The nucleus is
composed of about 9-12% DNA, 5% RNA, 3%
lipids, 15% simple basic proteins such as
histone or protamines, about 65% complex
acid or neutral proteins, including enzymes
such as polymerases for the synthesis of DNA
and RNA, organic phosphates and inorganic
salts or ions such as Mg++, Ca++ and Fe++.
Functions: The nucleus acts as a control center of the cell. It serves
the following main functions:

1. It maintains the cell by directing the synthesis of structural proteins.

2. It regulates cell metabolism by directing the synthesis of enzymatic
proteins.
3. It contains genetic information for reproduction, development and
behavior of the organism besides for structure and metabolism.
4. It brings about cell replication when needed.
5. It is the site for the formation of ribosome subunits.
6. It brings about cell differentiation by keeping only certain genes
operational.
7. It develops genetic variations that result in evolution.
1. Nuclear Envelope
The nuclear envelop, a part of the nucleus, is composed of two
unit membranes, the outer and inner, separated by a 250-meter
wide inter membrane. The outer membrane is lined with ribosomes
and polysomes, facilitating protein synthesis. The inner membrane
is free of ribosomes but has a dense layer called the nuclear lamina,
which supports the inner membrane and connects chromatin to
the inner membrane. The nuclear envelope is perforated by nuclear
pores, which control the passage of molecules and particles. These
pores are formed by fusion of the inner and outer membranes and
are filled with a pore complex, which controls the passage of larger
molecules and acts as a barrier to certain molecules.
Functions:
1. It maintains the shape of the nucleus.
2. It keeps the nuclear contents in place and distinct
from cytoplasm.
3. It regulates the flow of materials into and out of
the nucleus by active transport and out pocketing.
4. Its pores allow the exit of ribosomal subunits
formed in the nucleolus and tRNA and mRNA
synthesized on the chromosomes.
 2. Nucleoplasm
Nucleoplasm is a transparent fluid in the
nucleus, containing chromatin fibers,
nucleoli, raw materials, enzymes, metal
ions, proteins, and lipids. It contains
RNAs and ribosomal subunits, which pass
into the cytoplasm via nuclear pores.
Functions:
1. It is the seat for the
synthesis of DNA,
RNAs, ribosomal
subunits, ATP and NAD.
2. It supports the nuclear
matrix, chromatin
material and nucleoli.
3. It provides turgidity to
the nucleus.
3. Nuclear Matrix
The nuclear matrix is a network of thin,
criss-crossing, protein- containing fibrils
that are connected at their ends to the
nuclear envelope. It forms a sort of
nuclear skeleton. It remains intact after
the chromatin and DNA have been
removed.
Functions:

1. It maintains the shape of the nucleus.

2. Chromatin fibers are anchored to nuclear matrix.
3. The machinery for various nuclear activities, such as
transcription and replication, is associated with the
matrix.
4. It has also been implicated in the processing of newly
formed RNA molecules and their transport through
the nucleus.
4. Chromatin
• Flemming coined the term chromatin in 1879, which is
found in an interphase nucleus as chromatin fibers.
These fibers, typically 100Å in diameter, resemble a
diffuse network called the nuclear or chromatin
reticulum. During cell division, they form chromosomes
by condensing and coiling.
• Staining reveals light and dark areas of chromatin
material, followed by cell division, chromosomes change
into chromatin fibers, with most becoming uncoiled,
extended, and scattered in the nucleoplasm.
• Heterochromatin refers to darker, coiled, and
compacted chromosomal regions with less DNA
and more RNA than euchromatin. It contains
highly repeated, rarely transcribed DNA and is of
two types: (1) constitutive and (2) facultative.
Constitutive Heterochromatin is permanently
inactivated, while Facultative Heterochromatin
is partially condensed and inactivated, like the
X-chromosome in female mammals.
• In 1974, Kornberg and Thomas proposed that
chromatin fibers are chains of nucleosomes,
consisting of a core particle and a DNA strand. The
core particle is an octamer of 8 histone molecules,
while the DNA strand consists of 140 nucleotides.
Each nucleosome is connected by a short DNA
linker, with H1 histone protein forming the binding
linker. Nucleosomes represent the lowest level of
chromatin organization and are not formed in
prokaryotes.
Function:
• The chromatin fibers
form chromosomes
during cell division.
4. Nucleolus (Little Nucleus)

The nucleolus, discovered in 1781, is

present in most cells but inconspicuous in
sperm and muscle cells. It is spherical and
varies in species. Nucleoli disappear during
cell division and are reformed at specific sites
on chromosomes. Position is eccentric.
 The nucleolus is a dense, somewhat rounded, dark staining
organelle. It is without a limiting membrane. Calcium ions keep it
intact. It consists of four regions.
1. Fibrillar Region or Nucleolonema- It contains indistinct
fibrils about 50-100Å in diameter. The fibrils represent the
long rRNA precursor molecules in early stages of processing
before the processing enzymes have cut off segments from
them.
2. Granular Region- It contains spherical, electron dense
particles, about 150-200 Å in diameter and with fizzy outline.
The granules are ribosomal subunits (rRNA + ribosomal
proteins) that are nearly ready for transport to the
cytoplasm.
3. Amorphous Region or Pars Amorpha- It is a
structure-less proteinaceous matrix in which the
granular and fibrillar regions are suspended.
4. Nucleolar Chromatin- It consists of 100 Å thick
chromatin fibers. The latter are a part of the nucleolar
chromosome which follows a tortuous path through
the granular and fibrillar components of the nucleolus.
This part contains many copies of DNA that directs the
synthesis of ribosomal RNA. The rest of the nucleolar
chromosome lies in the nucleoplasm.
Functions:
• The nucleolus synthesizes and stores rRNA.
• It also stores ribosomal proteins received from the
cytoplasm.
• It forms ribosomal subunits by wrapping the rRNA by
ribosomal proteins. The ribosomal subunits pass out
through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm. Here the
subunits join to form ribosomes when needed. Thus, it is
the nucleolus which provides machinery (ribosomes) for
protein synthesis.
 Importance of Nucleus

The nucleus is the control center of a cell. It

regulates all metabolic activities of the cell and
stores entire hereditary information. A cell
without nucleus cannot survive.