LECTURE 3

RECOGNIZING
ARGUMENTS

PLEASE REFER TO PAGES 14 – 33 IN YOUR

TEXTBOOK
COPY RIGHT NUMBER: 14792/01
A RECAP
•Premise or premises; provides evidence or reasons to support the conclusion.

•Conclusion: emphasizes the alleged evidence or reasons of the premises.

•A good argument is a group of statements that contain premises that support the
conclusion whereas a bad argument does not.

•There are various premises and conclusion indicators.

•Each argument has at least one premise and exactly one (main) conclusion.
HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE
ARGUMENTS?
Not all passages contain arguments. The following is what is needed:

1. At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reasons. (Premises)

2. There must be a claim that the alleged evidence supports or implies something. (Conclusion)

Generally, there is an argument if it appear to prove something.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, 2018. A Concise Introduction to Logic. 13 ed. United States: Cengage

Learning. P. 14)
HOWEVER…
It is not necessary that the premises present actual evidence or true reasons nor
that the premises actually support the conclusion.

But the premises must claim to present evidence or reasons, and there must be a claim
that the evidence or reasons support or imply something.

The argument is largely biased because of the intentions of the speaker.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.14)

EXAMPLE
People who eat carrots every day have excellent eyesight (P1). John eats carrots every day (P2).
Therefore, John has excellent eyesight (C).
In this example, the premises claim to provide evidence (eating carrots leads to excellent eyesight) and
support the conclusion (John has excellent eyesight). However, the argument is flawed for several
reasons:
1.Overgeneralization: The first premise makes a sweeping generalization that all people who eat carrots
every day have excellent eyesight, which may not be true for everyone.
2.Unsupported claim: The first premise lacks credible evidence or a valid source to back up the claim
that eating carrots every day leads to excellent eyesight.
3.Causal connection: The argument assumes a direct causal relationship between eating carrots and
having excellent eyesight, without considering other factors that might contribute to good eyesight.
4.Ignoring individual differences: Even if eating carrots could improve eyesight for some people, the
argument fails to consider individual variations
HOW ARGUMENTS PRESENT
THEMSELVES
When evaluating whether a paragraph contains an argument, the claim that the
presented arguments or evidence support or imply something carries more weight. In
other words, if a paragraph appears to present reasons or evidence to support a certain
claim or conclusion, the presence of this explicit or implicit claim of support is an
essential factor in determining whether the paragraph can be considered an argument.
• Explicit claim: affirmed by premise or conclusion indicator words.

• Implicit claim: occurs if a passage's statements are inferentially related but the
text lacks indicator words.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.16)

HOW ARGUMENTS PRESENT
THEMSELVES
When analyzing a piece of text to identify arguments, critical readers look for the
following elements:

Premises: Statements that are presented as evidence or reasons to support a

conclusion.

Conclusion: The main claim or statement that the premises are intended to establish
or prove.

Inferential claim: The indication that the premises are meant to support or imply the
conclusion.
HOW ARGUMENTS PRESENT
THEMSELVES
The inferential claim, as mentioned in your statement, is crucial because it
demonstrates the logical connection between the premises and the conclusion.
Without this claim of support or implication, the paragraph may be seen as merely
presenting information or opinions without forming a coherent argument.

To recognize whether a paragraph contains an argument, readers need to consider the

presence of all these elements and assess whether the given evidence (premises)
indeed supports or implies the stated conclusion. This evaluation helps to differentiate
between persuasive and informative writing and allows readers to engage critically
with the presented information.
IMPLICIT ARGUMENTS
EXAMPLE
Example: COVID-19 is one of the deadliest disease of modern time. The Coronavirus is a
highly infectious and contagious disease that may resemble common upper respiratory
diseases such as the common cold. It is the cause of 6.42 million deaths globally from 23rd
January to 07th August 2022.

We can call the paragraph an argument because of the implied assertion that something is
supported by evidence that is implied by the relationship between the first statement and the
following two.

The first statement is the conclusion, and the other two are the premises.
INDICATOR DISCLAIMERS
By itself, the use of an indicator word DOES NOT imply that there is an argument.

It takes time to read through a piece multiple times before determining whether there is an
inferential relationship between claims.

The word "therefore" can be inserted before claims to determine if it makes sense to perceive one of
them as following the other when making such a decision.
 However, the decision of whether a passage contains an inferential relationship (including the
decision about indicator words) involves interpretation. Not everyone will agree about every
passage.

Sometimes the only answer possible is a conditional one.

NON-ARGUMENTS
Non-inferential passages

Expository passages

Illustrations

Explanations

Conditional statements

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.16)

SIMPLE NON-INFERENTIAL
PASSAGES
DEFFINITION: unproblematic passages lacking a claim that anything is being proved.

• Warnings
•Pieces of advice
•Statements of belief or opinion
•Loosely associated statements
•Reports.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.16)

WARNINGS (SN-IP)
DEFINITION: expression used to alert a person to a potentially hazardous or damaging
circumstance.

Examples: Watch out that you don’t slip on the wet floor.

Do not trust him to keep any of your secrets.

If no evidence is given to prove that such statements are true, then there is no argument.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.17)

PIECE OF ADVICE (SN-IP)
DEFINITION: an expression that suggests something about a future decision or course of
conduct.

Examples: You should try out this new two-week gym routine. It will help you tone up as well as
keep you fit.

Before starting this module, I want to encourage you to read because it will help you to better
answer questions in the future.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.17)

A STATEMENT OF BELIEF OR OPINION
(SN-IP)
DEFINITION: an expression of what someone believes or thinks about something.

Examples: I believe that the best way to study is to first make summaries and then study those
verbally.

We believe that our business must be run at an adequate profit and that the services and products
we offer must be better than those offered by competitors.

Neither of these statements asserts any claim that a belief or opinion is supported by evidence,
or that it supports some conclusion, there is no argument.
LOOSELY ASSOCIATED STATEMENTS
(SN-IP)
DEFINITION: do not make the assertion that one of them is supported by the others although they
may be on the same broad subject.

Example: Not to honor men of worth will keep the people from contention; not to value goods that are
hard to come by will keep them from theft; not to display what is desirable will keep them from being
unsettled of mind.

There is no argument because it is not asserted that any of these claims offer proof or justifications
for accepting another.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.17)

REPORT (SN-IP)
DEFINITION: A report consists of a group of statements transmitting information about some topic
or event.

Example: The first wave of feminism was introduced in the mid-19th century, primarily in Britain and
the United States, and was centered around women’s suffrage, the right to vote.

Wars among the great powers were frequent but limited. France made major efforts to become
paramount, but the balance of power operated to block French expansion.

ONE MUST BE CAREFUL: If passages are interpreted as “containing” arguments, it must be made
clear that the argument is not the authors, but one made by someone about whom the author is reporting.
 EXPOSITORY PASSAGES
DEFINITION: A discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that
develop it.

Examples: There are three familiar states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Solid objects ordinarily maintain
their shape and volume regardless of their location. A liquid occupies a definite volume but assumes the
shape of the occupied portion of its container. A gas maintains neither shape nor volume. It expands to fill
completely whatever container it is in.

Each passage starts with a topic sentence that is then developed and filled out in the following sentences.
These sentences lack an inferential assertion; hence they cannot be considered arguments.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPOSITORY
AND NON-INFERENTIAL PASSAGES
Expository passages differ from simple non-inferential passages because many can be taken as arguments.

The passage is an argument if the subsequent sentences in the passage serve to both elaborate on and
support the main sentence.
• If so, the passage most likely is NOT an argument. In real life, authors don't often strive to prove something
everyone already knows to be true.
• However, if the topic sentence makes a claim that many readers DO NOT agree with or have never
considered, the goal of the subsequent sentences may be to both develop the topic phrase and provide
evidence that it is accurate. If so, the passage serves as an argument.
 If even this process fails to produce a clear solution, the only other option may be to claim that, if the text is
interpreted as an argument, the first statement serves as the conclusion and the others as premises.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, pp.18-19)

 LET'S SUMMARIZE THE KEY POINTS:
Expository Passages: Expository passages are non-argumentative texts that aim to explain or describe a topic without making a claim or
attempting to persuade the reader. They provide information, facts, and details about a subject.

Argumentative Expository Passages: While most expository passages are not arguments, some can be taken as arguments if the topic
sentence makes a claim that is not universally accepted or if it presents a new perspective on the subject. In such cases, the subsequent
sentences might serve to both develop the topic and provide evidence or reasoning to support the initial claim.

Recognizing Arguments: When trying to identify an argument within an expository passage, it's essential to look for a clear inferential
claim that links the premises (supporting sentences) to the conclusion (the topic sentence).

Unclear Cases: Some passages may be challenging to categorize definitively as either expository or argumentative. In ambiguous cases,
one option could be to treat the topic sentence as the conclusion and the subsequent sentences as premises, assuming an argumentative
structure.

Understanding these distinctions is crucial for critical reading and analysis, as it helps readers differentiate between passages that
primarily seek to inform and those that aim to persuade or argue a particular point.
ILLUSTRATIONS
DEFINITION: an expression involving one or more examples intended to show meaning or how it
is done. Contain indicator words.

Examples: Driving a car requires the coordination of various skills, such as steering, braking, and
using the accelerator pedal. For instance, merging onto a busy highway demands careful observation,
precise timing, and smooth acceleration to ensure a safe entry into the flow of traffic.

The term “for instance" in the first example refers to the process of providing an example to illustrate
or clarify the concept being discussed.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.19)

However, as with expository passages, many illustrations can be taken as arguments. Such
arguments are often called arguments for example.

Here is an instance of one: Although most forms of mental illness, if untreated, can cause erratic
behaviour, not all mental illnesses have the same symptoms produced in erratic behaviour. For example,
someone who suffers from OCD may have rigorous schedules or tendencies to clean, but it does not
always result in an OCD meltdown.

In deciding whether an illustration should be interpreted as an argument, determine whether the

passage merely shows how something is done or what something means, or whether it also
appears to prove something.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.19)

EXPLANATIONS
DEFINITION: an expression that aims to shed light on some event or phenomenon which is
usually accepted as a matter of fact.

Examples: A steam powerplant produces electricity by burning coal. In a powerplant, coal is used
to heat water that produces pressurized steam to rotate a turbine which generates electricity.

These sections may be used to demonstrate the first claim to people who do not accept it as true
and to clarify it for those who do. Alternately, the text might be meant to both clarify this fact and
prove the first assertion to someone who believes it to be true out of blind faith or insufficient
experience. Thus, both an explanation and a defense can be made using these paragraphs.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
DEFINITION: “if . . . then . . .” statement;

Antecedent: The component statement immediately following the “if ”.

Consequent: component statement following the “then”.

There is no claim that either the antecedent or the consequent presents evidence. There is only the assertion that if the

antecedent is true, then so is the consequent. If it rains, then the outdoor event will be canceled.

Of course, a conditional statement may present evidence because it asserts a relationship between statements. Yet

when conditional statements are taken in this sense, there is still no argument, because there is then no separate claim

that this evidence implies anything.

The relation between conditional statements and arguments:

1. A single conditional statement is not an argument.

2. A conditional statement may serve as either the premise or the conclusion (or both) of an argument.

3. The inferential content of a conditional statement may be re-expressed to form an argument.

The first two rules are especially pertinent to the recognition of arguments.
• A sentence is not an argument, per the first criterion, if it only contains one conditional assertion.

• However, according to the second rule, it may be an argument if it consists of a conditional

statement and another statement, depending on elements like the presence of indicator terms and a
link implied by the statements.
NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT
CLAUSES
Conditional statements are especially important in logic because they express the relationship between
necessary and sufficient conditions.

A is said to be a sufficient condition for B whenever the occurrence of A is all that is needed for the
occurrence of B.

For example, being a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal.

On the other hand, B is said to be a necessary condition for A, whenever A cannot occur without the
occurrence of B.

Thus, being an animal is a necessary condition for being a dog.

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.23)

Imagine that you are handed a sizable, closed box of cardboard. And let's say you learn
that the box contains a dog.
Then you may be certain that an animal is present in the box. This conclusion can be
reached without any further information. This indicates that having a dog is enough to
qualify as an animal.
Being a dog is not a requirement for being an animal, as you can also infer with equal
certainty that a box contains an animal if you are told that it contains a cat.
In other words, it is not necessary for the box to contain a dog for it to contain an
animal. It might equally well contain a cat, a mouse, a squirrel, or any other animal.
(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.24)
Suppose you are informed that whatever may be within the box is not an animal. Afterward, you can be
assured there isn't a dog in the box. You can get to this conclusion because being a dog requires being an
animal. There cannot be a dog without an animal. Being an animal, however, does not equate to being a dog, as
you cannot infer from the information provided that the box contains a dog simply because it contains an
animal. A cat, a mouse, a squirrel, and other animals might be there.

These ideas are expressed in the following conditional statements: If X is a dog, then X is an animal. If X
is not an animal, then X is not a dog.

The first statement says that being a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal, and the second is that
being an animal is a necessary condition for being a dog. However, a little reflection reveals that these two
statements repeat. Each expresses in one way a necessary condition and in another way a sufficient condition.
The terminology of sufficient and necessary conditions will be used in later chapters to express definitions and
causal connections

(PJ. Hurley &. L. Watson, p.24)

WHICH NON ARGUMENT DOES THE
FOLLOWING PRESENTS:
a) a. If you study hard for the exam, then you will likely get a good grade.

b) It’s better to drive to work before 6 am before traffic gets hectic.

c) The car won’t start. The battery is dead. The car is flooded with gasoline.

d) Beware of the dog.

REMEMBER WHEN IDENTIFYING
ARGUMENTS
Look for three things:

(1) indicator words

(2) an inferential relationship between the statements

(3) typical kinds of nonarguments.

•You must check to see that the statement identified as the conclusion is claimed to be
supported by one or more of the other statements.