Data Base Management System & Oracle
Paper V
PGDCS&A
By Rupa Patel
Lecturer, MCA dept.
GHRIIT, Nagpur.
UNIT III -SQL
CODD’s Rules, oracle database objects, Sub Languages of SQL,
data Types, Operators.
DDL Statements : Creating tables, Deriving Table from Existing
table, Altering, Dropping Tables, Integrity
Constraints,Specifying Names for the constraints,Viewing
Integrity constraints,adding & Dropping Constraints.
DML Statements : SELECT statement,Insert,update,Delete,&
Synonyms.
Functions : Arithmetic,Date,Character,Cobnversions.Single
row,Aggregate,Decode,Joins,Set operators & Sub queries.
DCL & TCL Statements : Grant,Revoke,Commit,Rollback &
Savepoints.
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Functions
What is a Function?
Stored Software that Manipulates
Submitted Elements and Returns Some
Value
May by a SQL Standard Function (SUBSTR)
Could be Application Specific
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SQL Standard Functions :A function takes
one/more arguments & return a value
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Types of Functions
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Character Functions: accept character input &
return either character or number values.
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Dual table
Real Oracle Table With a Single Row
Used When All Elements in the SELECT
and WHERE Clauses do not Reference Any
Tables
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1. Syntax : initcap(char)
returns characters with a first letter of each
word in uppercase, all other letters in
lowercase.
Eg. select initcap (‘hello’) from dual;
o/p : Hello
Note :
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2. Syntax : lower(char)
used to convert upercase letters to
lowercase.
Eg. select initcap (‘INDIA’) from dual;
o/p : india
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3. Syntax : upper(char)
used to convert lowercase letters to
uppercase.
Eg. select initcap (‘india’) from dual;
o/p : INDIA
Another eg. : select * from raisoni where
Lower(dept)=‘mca’;
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1. Concat(char1,char2)
returns char1 concatenated with char2.
These function is equivalent to concatenation operator
(||).
user cannot concatenate more than 2 strings.
Ex. : select concat(‘abc’,’xyz’) from dual;
o/p : abcxyz
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2. Substr (char, m [,n])
returns a portion of a character beginning at character
m,n character long.
If n is omitted,then to the end of character
The first position of a character is 1.
Ex. : select substr(‘abcdefg’,2,3) from dual;
o/p : bcd
select substr(‘abcdefg’,0,0) from dual;
o/p : no output
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3. Length(char)
Used to find the length of the char.
Ex. : select length (‘abcdefg’) from dual;
o/p : 7
select substr(‘’) from dual;
o/p : no output
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4. INSTR(m,n)
Used to find the position of the char n in string m.
Ex. : select instr (‘abcdefg’,d) from dual;
o/p : 4
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5. LPAD(char1,n[,char2])
Returns char1,left padded to the length n with the
sequence of character in char2,char2 as default to
blank.
Ex. : select lpad (‘india’,10,’*’) from dual;
o/p : *****india
select lpad (‘india’,3,’*’) from dual;
o/p : ind
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6. RPAD(char1,n[,char2])
Returns char1,right padded to the length n with the
sequence of character in char2,char2 as default to
blank.
Ex. : select rpad (‘india’,10,’*’) from dual;
o/p : india*****
Select rpad(‘india’,10) from dual;
o/p : india
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7. LTRIM (char [,set])
Removes character from the left of the char with initial
characters removed up to the first character not in the
set.
Ex. : select ltrim(‘xxxDxxLast’,’x’) from dual;
o/p : DxxLast
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8. RTRIM (char [,set])
Removes character from the right of the char with initial
characters removed up to the first character not in the
set.
Ex. : select rtrim(‘AxDxx’,’x’) from dual;
o/p : AxDxx
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9. TRIM
Combines the functionality of the ltrim & rtrim
When Specified leading ,the function is similar to the
ltrim
Ex. : select trim(leading 9 from 99987699) from
dual;
o/p : 87699
When specified trailing, the function is similar to rtrim
Ex. : select trim(trailing 9 from 99987699) from
dual;
o/p : 999876
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10. Replace (char, search-string [,replacement-
string])
Returns char with every occurrence of search-string
replaced with replacement-string. If replacement-string
is omitted all occurrence of search-string are removed.
Ex. : select replace (‘abcd’,’b’,’Z’) from dual;
o/p : aZcd
Select replace (‘abcd’,’b’) from dual;
o/p acd
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11. Translate( char, from, to)
Returns char with all occurrence of each character in
from replace by its corresponding character in to.
Characters in char that are not in from are not replaced.
You cannot use empty string for to in order to remove
characters in from the returned value.
Translate performs character by character replacement.
Ex. : select translate (‘ABCDEFED’,’CDE’,’123’) from dual;
o/p : AB123F32
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12. Chr(n)
Returns the character equivalent of the number n.
Ex. : select chr(67) from dual;
o/p : C
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12. Ascii(char)
Converts character into number .
Ex. : select ASCII(‘A’) from dual;
o/p : 65
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Decode function
In Oracle/PLSQL, the decode function has the functionality of an IF-
THEN-ELSE statement.
Decode statement was developed to allow user to transform data
values at retrieval time.
syntax
decode( expression , search , result [, search , result]... [, default] )
expression is the value to compare.
search is the value that is compared against expression.
result is the value returned, if expression is equal to search.
default is optional. If no matches are found, the decode will return
default. If default is omitted, then the decode statement will return null
(if no matches are found).
The maximum number of components that you can have in a decode
function is 255. This includes the expression, search, and result
argument
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Decode function
desc studr; Name Null? Type
ROLL NUMBER(2)
MARK NUMBER(5)
select * from studr;
ROLL MARK
1 100
2 25
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Decode function
IF mark = 100 THEN
result := ‘A’
ELSe
result := ‘B';
Following decode statement is equivalent to the If-then statement
select roll, mark,decode(mark,100,’A’,
25, ‘B’) R from studr;
ROLL MARK R
1 100 A
2 25 B
select roll, mark,decode(mark,100,'X','B')R from studr;
ROLL MARK R
1 100 X
2 25 B
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Number/Aritmetic
1. Abs 10. Sin, cos, tan
2. Ceil 11. Acos, Asin, Atan
12. Round
3. Floor
13. Mod
4. Power 14. Power
5. Sqrt 15. Trunc
6. Sign 16. Nvl
7. Exp
8. Ln (logarithm)
9. Log
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exp
the exp function returns e raised to the nth
power, where e = 2.71828183.
The syntax for the exp function is:
exp( number )
number is the power to raise e to.
exp(3)would return 20.0855369231877
exp(3.1)would return 22.1979512814416
exp(-3)would return 0.0497870683678639
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Cos
the cos function returns the cosine of a
number.
syntax for the cos function is:
cos( number )
cos(0.2)would return 0.980066577841242
cos(0.35)would return 0.939372712847379
cos(-3.15)would return -0.999964658471342
cos(200)would return 0.487187675007006
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Acos
the acos function returns the arc cosine of a
number.
Syntax: acos( number )
number is the number used to calculate the arc
cosine.
For example:
acos(0.2)would return 1.36943840600457
acos(-0.15)would return 1.72136459957158
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Aggregate /Group functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single
value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
AVG() - Returns the average value
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
FIRST() - Returns the first value
LAST() - Returns the last value
MAX() - Returns the largest value
MIN() - Returns the smallest value
SUM() - Returns the sum
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Aggregate functions
1. AVG :
Returns the average of the column
values.
Syntax : avg([distinct | all ] columnname)
Eg. Select avg(mark) from studr;
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SQL Scalar functions
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on
the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case
LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
MID() - Extract characters from a text field
LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of
decimals specified
NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
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Number/Arithmetic
ACOS,
ASIN,
ATAN,
ATAN2,
COS,
COT,
SIN,
TAN,
DEGREES,
RADIANS,
CEILING,
FLOOR,
EXP,
LOG, LOG10, PI(), POWER, ABS, RAND, ROUND, SIGN, SQRT.
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12. DECODE( valu1,if1,then1,if2,then2,..)
Decode function does a value by value replacement
Ex. :
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Single value functions
1. ABS : returns the absolute value.
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